THE    MOTHER    TONGUE 

Book   II 

AN  ELEMENTARY  ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR 

WITH  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION 

BY 
GEORGE   LYMAN   KITTREDGE 

Professor  of  English  in  Harvard  University 
and 

SARAH   LOUISE   ARNOLD 

Supervisor  of  Schools  in  Boston 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

GINN  &  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

QTbe  SU&nwcttm  prcee 


190 


\    ^L>  (»   wb 


Copyright,  1000, 1901 
By  G.  L.  Kittredge  and  S.  L.  Arnold 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


PREFACE. 


The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  set  forth  the  elements 
of  English  grammar  in  their  relation  to  thought  and  the 
expression  of  thought.  This  object  has  been  the  guiding 
principle  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  material, 
in  the  treatment  of  forms  and  constructions,  and  in  the 
fashioning  of  the  very  numerous  illustrative  exercises. 
The  Introduction  explains  in  simple  language  certain 
eneral  conceptions  too  often  ignored  in  the  study  of 
grammar:  the  nature  of  language,  its  relation  to  thought 
and  to  style,  the  processes  which  affect  its  growth  and 
decay,  the  province  of  grammar,  and  the  relation  of  gram- 
mar to  usage.  These  chapters  are  intended  to  be  read 
aloud  by  the  pupils  or  by  the  teacher  and  to  serve  as  the 
basis  for  informal  discussion  in  the  class-room.  The  pupil 
should  not  be  allowed  to  study  them  mechanically.  Above 
all  things,  he  should  not  try  to  learn  them  by  heart.  The 
main  principles  which  they  embody  are  summed  up  in 
Chapter  I,  p.  1,  with  which  the  definite  study  of  Grammar 
begins. 

Chapters  II-LVIII  deal  primarily   with  the  Parts   of 

eech  and  with  their  combination  into  sentences  in  the 

.pression  of  thought.     In  this  part  of  the  book  only  so 

audi  inflection  is  included  as  is  necessary  for  an  under- 

tanding  of  the  structure   of  sentences.     As  soon  as  the 

oupil  has  learned  something  of  the  nature  of  substantives 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

and  verbs,  he  is  introduced  to  simple  sentences,  and  from 
this  point  to  the  end  of  Chapter  LVI,  the  study  of  analy- 
sis and  synthesis  is  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  treat- 
ment of  the  parts  of  speech  until  all  the  main  elements  of 
sentence-structure  have  been  exemplified.  Chapter  LVII 
sums  up,  by  way  of  review,  the  analytical  processes  with 
which  the  pupil  has  become  familiar  in  the  chapters  which 
precede. 

With  Chapter  LIX  a  more  detailed  study  of  inflection 
begins.  This  continues  through  Chapter  CXV,  and  includes 
all  the  important  phenomena  of  English  inflection,  which 
are  explained,  not  as  isolated  facts,  but  as  means  of  express- 
ing varieties  of  human  thought.  The  explanations  are 
made  as  simple  as  possible,  and  this  very  simplicity 
necessitates  a  somewhat  fuller  treatment  than  is  usual  in 
school  Grammars.  The  paradigm  of  the  verb  has  been 
much  simplified  by  a  careful  discussion  of  verb-phrases. 
A  number  of  notes  in  fine  type  deal  with  some  of  the  more 
striking  facts  of  Historical  Grammar,  and  may  be  used  by 
the  teacher  at  his  discretion  to  illustrate  the  true  nature 
of  the  forms  and  constructions  of  which  they  treat.  The 
study  of  this  part  of  the  book  implies  constant  reviews  of  the 
earlier  chapters.  For  convenience,  the  point  at  which  such 
reviews  may  be  advantageously  made  is  indicated  in  foot- 
notes, but  the  teacher  will  of  course  use  his  own  judgment. 
In  particular,  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  continue  practice 
in  analysis,  and  for  this  purpose  abundant  material  is  con- 
tained in  the  exercises  appended  to  the  several  chapters. 

A  number  of  the  more  difficult  syntactical  questions  are 
deferred  until  inflection  has  been  mastered  (see  Chapters 
CXVI-CXLII).  Their  treatment  at  this  point  affords  an 
opportunity  for  a  thorough  and  systematic  review  of  the 
structure  of  complex  sentences. 


PREFACE.  V 

The  Appendix  contains  a  list  of  irregular  verbs  and 
other  material  intended  for  reference.  The  lists  of  irreg- 
ular verbs  may  be  used  in  connection  with  the  lessons  on 
the  preterite  and  the  participles  (pp.  204  ff.).  These  lists 
differ  from  those  furnished  by  most  Grammars  in  one 
important  particular  :  they  contain  only  such  forms  as  are 
unquestionably  correct  in  accordance  with  the  best  modern 
prose  usage.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  attempt  to 
include  in  a  single  list  rare,  archaic,  and  poetical  verb- 
forms  along  with  those  habitually  employed  by  the  best 
prose  writers  of  the  present  day  is  confusing  and  even 
misleading  to  the  beginner.*  Accordingly,  such  archaic 
and  poetical  forms  as  have  to  be  mentioned  are  carefully 
separated  from  the  forms  regularly  used  in  modern  prose. 

Exercises  for  practice  are  furnished  in  liberal  measure. 
It  is  not  intended  that  every  pupil  should  necessarily  work 
through  all  these  exercises.  Each  teacher  is  the  best  judge 
of  precisely  how  much  practice  his  pupils  require.  The 
aim  of  the  authors  has  been  to  provide  such  material  in 
abundance  and  with  due  regard  to  variety. 

In  the  choice  of  technical  terms,  the  authors  have  pre- 
ferred those  names  which  are  universally  intelligible  and 
have  the  authority  of  long-continued  usage  in  all  lan- 
guages, to  other  terms  which  are  scarcely  seen  outside  of 
the  covers  of  elementary  English  Grammars.  Thus,  for 
example,  the  term  genitive  has  been  preferred  to  possessive. 
One  advantage  of  this  plan  is  that  it  does  not  isolate  the 
study  of  our  own  language  from  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages. Here  again,  however,  the  individual  teacher  can 
best  judge  of  the  needs  of  his  pupils.  Hence  the  alter- 
native terms  are  regularly  mentioned,  and  they  may  be 
substituted  without  inconvenience. 

*  See  page  386  and  foot-note  l. 


VI  PREFACE. 

The  authors  make  no  apology  for  employing  certain 
shorthand  grammatical  terms  which  cause  no  difficulty  to 
the  youngest  pupils.  A  studious  effort  to  separate  the 
uameixom  the  thing  named,  for  example,  may  be  important 
for  the  philosopher,  but  it  is  only  baffling  to  the  beginner. 
No  real  confusion  of  thought  can  ever  arise  from  speaking 
of  an  adjective,  for  example,  as  "modifying,  or  describing, 
a  noun,"  instead  of  always  taking  pains  to  represent  it  as 
"  modifying  the  meaning  of  the  noun  "  or  "  describing  the 
'person  or  thing  for  which  the  noun  stands."  Scientific 
grammarians  the  world  over  have  given  their  sanction  to 
such  shorthand  expressions,  and  they  have  been  unhesi- 
tatingly used  in  this  book  whenever  directness  could  be 
gained  thereby.  Surely  there  is  no  danger  that  the  young- 
est child  will  ever  mistake  the  word  apple  for  the  object 
which  bears  that  name! 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

1.  Language  and  Grammar xiii 

2.  Development  of  Language xviii 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

1.  General  Principles 1 

2.  The  Parts  of  Speech 2 

3.  Nouns 4 

4.  Special  Classes  of  Nouns 7 

5.  Pronouns 10 

6.  Verbs  and  Verb-Phrases 13 

7.  Sentences 16 

8.  Sentences.  —  Subject  and  Predicate 17 

9.  Complete  and  Simple  Subject  and  Predicate   ...  20 

10.  The  Copula  is 23 

11.  Interrogative  Sentences.    1 25 

12.  Interrogative  Sentences.     II 27 

13.  Imperative  Sentences 29 

14.  Exclamatory  Sentences 31 

15.  Vocative 33 

16.  Adjectives 37 

17.  Classes  of  Adjectives 39 

18.  The  Two  Articles 41 

19.  Adverbs 45 

20.  Adverbs  Modifying  Adjectives 47 

21.  Adverbs  Modifying  Adverbs 48 

vii 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

22.  Classification  of  Adverbs     .......  49 

23.  Analysis.  —  Modifiers 53 

24.  Prepositions 55 

25.  Conjunctions 59 

26.  Interjections        ....                  ....  63 

27.  Phrases 65 

28.  Adjective  Phrases 68 

29.  Adverbial  Phrases 71 

30.  Analysis.  —  Phrases  as  Modifiers 75 

81.  Number 77 

32.  Genitive  or  Possessive  Case 80 

33.  Forms  of  the  Genitive 81 

34.  Genitive  of  Pronouns 84 

35.  Genitive  Replaced  by  an  Of-Phrase         ....  85 

36.  Analysis.  —  Genitive  and  Of-Phrase 86 

37.  Apposition 87 

38.  Analysis.  —  The  Appositive 89 

39.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs. — The  Direct  Object  .  90 

40.  Analysis.  —  The  Direct  Object 94 

41.  Active  and  Passive  Voice 95 

42.  Predicate  Adjective 97 

43.  Predicate  Nominative 99 

44.  Direct  Object  and  Predicate  Nominative  Distinguished       .  101 

45.  Pronoun  as  Predicate  Nominative 105 

46.  Analysis.  —  Predicate  Nominative  and  Predicate  Adjective  106 

47.  Simple  Subject  and  Compound  Subject  ....  107 

48.  Simple  Predicate  and  Compound  Predicate         .         .         .  110 

49.  Clauses.  —  Compound  Sentences 113 

50.  Complex  Sentences. — Adverbial  Clauses    ....  115 

51.  Relative  Pronouns 117 

52.  Adjective  Clauses 120 

53.  Noun  Clauses 122 

54.  The  Same  Word  as  Different  Parts  of  Speech     .         .         .125 

55.  Nouns  and  Adjectives 127 

56.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 129 

57.  Structure  of  Sentences 131 

58.  Form  of  Analysis 134 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


I. 
II. 


CHAPTER 

59.  Inflection 

60.  Summary  of  Inflections 

61.  Gender    . 

62.  Special  Rules  of  Gender. 

63.  Special  Rules  of  Gender. 

64.  Plural  of  Nouns  . 

65.  Irregular  Plurals.     I. 

66.  Irregular  Plurals.     II. 

67.  Irregular  Plurals.     III.  . 

68.  Personal  Pronouns.     I. 

69.  Personal  Pronouns.    II. 

70.  Nominative  and  Objective  Case 

71.  Predicate  Nominative 

72.  Nominative  in  Exclamations 

73.  Genitive  or  Possessive  Case  ■    . 

74.  Case  of  Appositives     . 

75.  Indirect  Object 

76.  Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

77.  Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

78.  Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

79.  Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

80.  Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

81.  Comparison  of  Adverbs  . 

82.  Irregular  Comparison  of  Adverbs 

83.  Use  of  Comparative  and  Superlative 

84.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 

85.  Inflection  of  Demonstratives 

86.  Indefinite  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 

87.  Tbe  Self-Pronouns  . 

88.  Special  Uses  of  the  Self-Pronouns 

89.  Numerals         .... 

90.  Inflection  of  Verbs.  —  Tense 

91.  Preterite  Tense 

92.  Preterite  Tense  of  Strong  Verbs 

93.  Weak  Preterites  in  -ed  or  -d    . 

94.  Weak  Preterites  in  -t  . 

95.  Weak  Preterites  without  Ending 


I.     . 
II. 
III. 
IV. 
V.   . 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER 

96.  Singular  and  Plural  Verbs 

97.  Special  Rules  for  the  Number  of  Verbs 

98.  Person  of  Verbs         .... 

99.  Personal  Endings 

100.  Infinitive 

101.  Participles 

102.  Present  Participle      .... 

103.  Past  Participle  of  Weak  Verbs      . 

104.  Past  Participle  of  Strong  Verbs 

105.  Modifiers  and  Object  of  Infinitive  or  Participle 

106.  Principal  Parts  of  Verbs    .... 

107.  Verbal  Nouns  in  -ing     . 

108.  Future  Tense     .... 

109.  Passive  Voice         .... 

110.  Active  and  Passive    .         . 

111.  Complete  or  Compound  Tenses 

112.  Progressive  Verb-Phrases.     I.   . 

113.  Progressive  Verb-Phrases.     II. 

114.  Emphatic  Verb-Phrases     . 

115.  Imperative  Mood  .... 

116.  Nominative  Absolute 

117.  Cognate  Object      .... 

118.  Predicate  Objective   .... 

119.  Relative  Pronouns 

120.  Gender  of  Relatives  .... 

121.  Descriptive  and  Restrictive  Relatives 

122.  The  Relative  Pronoun  what 

123.  Compound  Relative  Pronouns 

124.  Relative  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

125.  Interrogative  Pronouns,  etc. 

126.  The  Infinitive  as  a  Noun   . 

127.  The  Infinitive  as  a  Modifier  . 

128.  Potential  Verb-Phrases     . 

129.  Subjunctive  Mood 

130.  Subjunctive  in  Wishes  and  Exhortations  . 

131.  Subjunctive  in  Concessions,  Conditions,  etc 

132.  Various  Uses  of  the  Subjunctive 


PAGE 

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215 

217 

219 

222 

226 

229 

230 

232 

234 

236 

237 

240 

245 

248 

249 

251 

252 

253 

255 

259 

262 

263 

267 

270 

271 

272 

273 

274 

276 

278 

280 

283 

287 

289 

290 

292 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER 

133.  The  Thought  in  the  Sentence 

134.  Subordinate  Clauses  Classified  . 

135.  Clauses  of  Place  and  Time 

13G.  Causal  and  Concessive  Clauses  . 

137.  Clauses  of  Purpose  and  of  Result 

138.  Conditional  Sentences 

139.  Adverbial  Clauses.  —  Comparison 

140.  Direct  and  Indirect  Statements 

141.  Indirect  Questions 

142.  Infinitive  Clauses 

143.  Sequence  of  Tenses 

144.  Classification  of  Phrases    . 

Lessons  in  Composition 


PAGE 

. 

294 

.  296 

. 

297 

.  298 

. 

299 

.  300 

302 

.  304 

306 

.  309 

. 

311 

. 

.  316 

319 


APPENDIX. 


The  English  Language 

Lists  of  Verbs 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  to  be 


:;s:; 
386 
394 


Synopsis 
Index 


397 
409 


INTRODUCTION. 

rls 


LANGUAGE   AND   GRAMMAR. 

/  Z  (fi  2  b 

Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means  of  spoken  or 

written  Words. 

The  English  word  language  comes  from  the  Latin 
word  lingua,  "  the  tongue,"  and  was  originally  applied 
to  oral  speech.  But  the  art  of  writing  is  now  so  common 
that  it  is  quite  as  natural  for  us  to  speak  of  the  language 
in  which  a  book  is  written  as  of  the  language  in  which 
an  address  is  delivered  or  a  conversation  carried  on. 

Many  savage  tribes  (for  example,  the  North  American 
Indians)  have  a  method  of  conversing  in  gestures  with- 
out speaking  at  all.  This  is  called  the  sign-language.  All 
language,  however,  is  really  the  expression  of  thought  by 
means  of  signs  ;  for  spoken  words  are  signs  made  with  the 
voice,  and  written  words  are  signs  made  with  the  pen. 

Thus  when  we  speak  or  write  the  English  word  dog,  we  are 
just  as  truly  making  a  sign  as  an  Indian  is  when  he  expresses  the 
idea  dog  by  his  fingers.  Our  spoken  or  written  sign  for  dog  can- 
not be  understood  by  anybody  who  does  not  know  the  English 
language ;  for  different  languages  have  different  words,  that  is, 
different  signs,  for  the  same  thing  or  idea.  Thus  the  German  word 
for  dog  is  Hund ;  the  Latin  word  for  dog  is  canis,  and  so  on. 

Most  words  are  the  signs  of  definite  ideas. 

xiii 


XIV  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

For  example,  soldier,  sailor,  dog,  cat,  horse,  tree,  river,  house,  shop, 
call  up  in  our  minds  images  of  persons  or  things  ;  run,  jump,  write, 
travel,  suggest  kinds  of  action ;  red,  black,  tall,  studious,  careful, 
suggest  qualities  belonging  to  persons  or  things. 

By  the  aid  of  such  distinct  and  picturesque  words  as 
these,  we  can  express  man)  thoughts  and  ideas  ;  that 
is,  we  can  talk  or  write  after  a  fashion.  But  we  cannot 
talk  in  a  connected  manner.  If,  for  example,  we  wish 
to  say  that  the  house  is  on  fire,  we  can  express  our 
thought  imperfectly  by  saying  simply,  "  House  burn  !  " 
or  "  House !  fire !  "  as  a  young  child,  or  a  foreigner  who 
knew  very  little  English,  might  do.  But  if  we  wish  to 
express  our  thought  fully,  it  would  be  natural  to  say, 
"  The  house  is  on  fire."  That  is,  besides  the  words 
that  express  distinct  ideas,  we  should  use  little  words, 
the,  is,  on,  which  do  not  call  up  any  clear  picture  in 
the  mind. 

To  express  thought,  then,  language  needs  not  merely 
words  that  are  the  signs  of  distinct  ideas,  but  also  a 
number  of  words  like  is,  was,  in,  to,  and,  but,  if,  which 
serve  merely  to  join  words  together  and  to  show  their 
relations  to  each  other  in  connected  speech. 

The  relations  of  words  to  each  other  in  connected 
speech  are  shown  in  three  ways  :  (1)  by  their  form ;  (2) 
by  their  order  or  arrangement ;  (3)  by  the  use  of  words 
like  and,  if,  to,  from,  by,  etc.     Thus, — 

I.  In  the  phrase  "  John's  hat,"  the  form  of  the  word 
John's  shows  the  relation  of  John  to  the  hat;  that  is,  it 
shows  that  John  is  the  owner  or  possessor  of  the  hat. 

II.  Compare  the  two  sentences :  — 

John  struck  Charles. 
Charles  struck  John. 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 

The  meaning  is  entirely  different.  In  the  first  sen- 
tence, John  gives  the  blow  and  Charles  receives  it ;  in 
the  second,  Charles  does  the  striking  and  John  gets  hit. 
Yet  the  forms  of  the  three  words  John,  Charles,  and 
struck  are  the  same  in  both  sentences.  In  each  case  the 
relation  of  the  three  words  to  each  other  is  shown  by 
the  order  in  which  they  stand ;  the  word  which  comes  first 
is  the  name  of  the  striker,  and  the  word  which  follows 
struck  is  the  name  of  the  person  who  receives  the  blow. 

III.  Let  us  examine  the  use  of  such  words  as  of, 
by,  to,  from,  and  the  like. 

In  the  following  phrase, 

The  honor  of  a  gentleman, 

the  relation  of  honor  to  gentleman  is  shown  by  the  word 
of.     The  honor,  we  see,  belongs  to  the  gentleman. 

The  relation  in  which  a  word  stands  to  other  words  in  con- 
nected speech  is  called  its  Construction. 

Grammar  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  Forms  and  the 
Constructions  of  words. 

The  study  of  grammar,  then,  divides  itself  into  two 
parts :  — 

(1)  the  study  of  the  different  forms  which  a  word 
may  take  (as  John  or  Johns;  walk  or  walks  or  tvalked ; 
he  or  him) ; 

(2)  the  study  of  the  different  constructions  which  a 
word  may  have  in  connected  speech. 

The  first  of  these  parts  is  called  the  study  of  inflec- 
tion, the  second  the  study  of  syntax. 

The  Inflection  of  a  word  is  a  change  in  its  Form  to  indicate  its 
Construction. 

Syntax  is  that  department  of  grammar  which  treats  of  the 
Constructions  of  words. 


xvi  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

In  some  languages,  the  constructions  of  words  are 
shown  to  a  great  extent  by  means  of  inflection.  Thus,  in 
Latin,  lapis  means  "  a  stone  "  ;  lapidis,  "  of  a  stone  "  ; 
lapide,  "  with  a  stone  " ;  lapidum,  "  of  stones,"  and  so 
on.  The  word  lapis,  it  will  be  seen,  changes  its  form  by 
inflection  as  its  construction  changes.  English  was  for- 
merly rich  in  such  inflections,  but  most  of  these  have 
been  lost,  so  that  in  modern  English  the  constructions 
of  many  words  have  to  be  shown  either  by  their  order 
or  by  the  use  of  various  little  words  such  as  of,  with. 

The  rules  of  Grammar  get  their  authority  from  Usage. 

By  usage  is  meant  the  practice  of  the  best  writers  or 
speakers,  not  merely  the  habits  of  the  community  in 
which  a  person  happens  to  live.  There  are,  of  course, 
varieties  in  usage,  so  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
pronounce  one  of  two  expressions  grammatical  and  the 
other  ungrammatical.  In  some  cases,  too,  there  is 
room  for  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  correctness  of 
a  particular  form  or  construction.  But  in  a  language 
like  English,  which  has  been  written  and  studied  for 
centuries,  all  the  main  facts  are  well  settled.  Usage; 
then,  is  practically  uniform  throughout  the  English- 
speaking  world.  Pronunciation  differs  somewhat  in 
different  places,  but  educated  Englishmen,  Americans, 
and  Australians  all  speak  and  write  in  accordance  with 
the  same  grammatical  principles. 

Since  language  is  the  expression  of  thought,  the  Rules  of 
Grammar  agree,  in  the  main,  with  the  Laws  of  Thought. 

In  other  words,  grammar  accords,  in  the  main,  with 
logic,  which  is  the  science  that  deals  with  the  processes 
of  reasonable  thinking. 


INTRODUCTION.  XVII 

There  are,  however,  some  exceptions.  Every  lan- 
guage has  its  peculiar  phrases  or  constructions  which 
appear  to  be  irregular  or  even  illogical,  but  which, 
because  they  have  become  established  by  usage,  are  not 
ungrammatical.  These  are  called  idioms  (from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  "peculiarities"). 

For  example,  if  we  say  "  When  are  you  going  to  study  your 
lesson  ? "  we  use  the  word  going  in  a  peculiar  way  without  any 
reference  to  actual  motion  or  going.  We  mean  simply  "  When 
shall  you  study  ?  "  This  use  of  "  are  you  going  "  for  "  shall  you  " 
is,  then,  an  English  idiom. 

One  may  speak  or  write  grammatically  and  still  not 
speak  or  write  in  what  is  called  a  good  style.  In  other 
words,  language  may  be  grammatical  without  being 
clear,  forcible,  and  in  good  taste. 

Thus  in  the  sentence :  "  Brutus  assassinated  Csesar  because  he 
wished  to  become  king,"  no  rule  of  grammar  is  broken.  Yet  the 
style  of  the  sentence  is  bad  because  the  meaning  is  not  clear ;  we 
cannot  tell  who  it  was  that  desired  the  kingship  —  Csesar  or 
Brutus.  Again,  "  He  talks  as  fast  as  a  horse  can  trot "  is  per- 
fectly grammatical,  but  it  would  not  be  an  elegant  expression  to 
use  of  a  great  orator. 

Good  style,  then,  is  impossible  without  grammatical 
correctness,  but  grammatical  correctness  does  not  neces- 
sarily carry  with  it  good  style. 

The  ability  to  speak  and  write  correctly  does  not 
depend  on  a  knowledge  of  grammatical  rules.  It  is 
usually  acquired  by  unconscious  imitation,  as  children 
learn  to  talk.  Yet  an  acquaintance  with  grammar  is  of 
great  help  in  acquiring  correctness  of  speech.  In  par- 
ticular, it  enables  one  to  criticise  one's  self  and  to  decide 


XVlil  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

between  what    is   right    and  what  is  wrong  in  many 
doubtful  cases.      Grammar,  then,  is  useful  as  a  tool. 

But  the  study  of  grammar  is  also  valuable  as  training 
in  observation  and  thought.  Language  is  one  of  the 
most  delicate  and  complicated  instruments  which  men 
use,  and  a  study  of  its  laws  and  their  application  is  a 
worthy  occupation  for  the  mind. 


II. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   LANGUAGE. 

Language  never  stands  still.  Every  language,  until 
it  dies  (that  is,  until  it  ceases  to  be  spoken  at  all),  is  in 
a  state  of  continual  change.  The  English  which  we 
speak  and  write  is  not  the  same  English  that  was 
spoken  and  written  by  our  grandfathers,  nor  was  their 
English  precisely  like  that  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  time. 
The  farther  back  we  go,  the  less  familiar  we  find  our- 
selves with  the  speech  of  our  ancestors,  until  finally  we 
reach  a  kind  of  English  which  is  quite  as  strange  to  us 
as  if  it  were  a  foreign  tongue. 

Such  changes  take  place  gradually,  —  so  slowly 
indeed,  that  we  are  hardly  aware  that  they  are  going 
on  at  all, — but  in  the  long  run  they  may  transform  a 
language  so  completely  that  only  scholars  can  recog- 
nize the  old  words  and  forms  as  identical,  at  bottom, 
with  the  new.  Indeed,  the  changes  may  go  so  far  that 
entirely  new  languages  are  formed. 

'Ili us  from  Latin,  the  language  of  the  ancient  Romans  (which 
is  now  dead)  have  come,  by  these  gradual  processes,  a  whole 
group  of   living  modern  languages,  including    French,  Italian, 


INTRODUCTION.  XIX 

and  Spanish,  differing  from  each  other  so  much  that  a  French- 
man cannot  understand  an  Italian  or  a  Spaniard  any  better  than 
he  can  an  Englishman  or  a  German. 

The  changes  which  a  language  undergoes  are  of 
many  different  kinds.  Most  of  them,  however,  we  can 
observe  in  our  own  experience  if  we  stop  to  think  of 
what  takes  place  about  us.  They  affect  (1)  vocabulary, 
that  is,  the  stock  of  words  which  a  language  .possesses, 
(2)  the  meanings  of  words,  (3)  their  pronunciation  and  spell- 
ing, (4)  their  forms  of  inflection,  (5)  their  construction, 
that  is,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  put  together  in 
expressing  thought. 

I.  Many  words  and  phrases  which  once  belonged  to 
the  English  language  have  gone  out  of  use  entirely. 
Such  words  are  said  to  be  obsolete  (from  a  Latin  word 
which  means  simply  "out  of  use"). 

Thus  holt  ("wood"),  couth  ("known"),  thilk  ("that  same"), 
achatour  ("buyer"),  warray  ("to  wage  war"),  are  obsolete  Eng- 
lish words. 

Many  words  and  phrases,  though  obsolete  in  spoken 
English  and  in  prose  writing,  are  still  used  in  poetry. 
Such  words  are  called  archaic  (that  is,  ancient). 

Examples  are  ruth  ("pity"),  sooth  ("truth"),  icot  ("know"), 
ween  ("think"),  eke  ("also"). 

But  changes  in  vocabulary  are  not  all  in  the  way  of 
loss.  New  words  and  phrases  are  always  springing  up, 
whether  to  name  new  things  and  ideas  or  merely  for  the 
sake  of  variety  in  expression.  Thus  within  the  memory 
of  persons  now  living  the  words  telegraph,  telegram^ 
telep>hone,  dynamo,  and  the  like,  have  come  into  exist- 
ence and  made  good  their  place  in  the  English  language. 


XX  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Both  of  these  processes,  —  the  rise  and  the  disappear- 
ance of  words, — may  be  observed  by  every  one  in  the 
case  of  what  we  call  slang.  Slang  words  spring  up 
almost  daily,  are  heard  for  a  time  from  the  lips  of  old 
and  young,  and  then  vanish  (become  obsolete),  only  to 
be  replaced  by  newcomers.  Now  and  then,  however, 
a  slang  word  gets  a  footing  in  good  use  and  so  keeps 
its  place  in  the  language.  Thus,  mob,  snob,  boss,  chum, 
were  originally  slang,  but  are  now  recognized  members 
of  the  English  vocabulary. 

II.  Changes  in  meaning.  —  The  words  of  a  living  lan- 
guage are  constantly  changing  in  sense.  Old  meanings 
disappear  and  new  meanings  arise.  Thus,  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages  from  Shakspere,  the  italicized  words 
all  bear  meanings  which,  though  common  three  hun- 
dred years  ago,  are  now  out  of  use  (obsolete) :  — 

She  is  of  so  sweet,  so  gentle,  so  blessed  a  condition.  [Condi- 
tion here  means  "  character  "  or  "  nature."] 

Advance  your  standards.     [Advance  means  "lift  up."" 
Make  all  the  money  thou  canst.     [Make  here  means  "  collect," 
"get  together,"  not,  as  in  modern  English,  "earn"  or  "gain."]* 

III.  Changes  in  pronunciation  and  spelling.  —  The  busi- 
ness of  spelling  is  to  indicate  pronunciation.  In  a 
perfect  system,  words  would  be  spelled  as  they  are  pro- 
nounced. Such  a  system,  however,  has  never  been  in 
use  in  any  language,  and,  indeed,  is  impracticable, 
for  no  two  persons  pronounce  exactly  alike.  Even 
if  a  perfect  system   could   be   devised,   it  would   not 

*  Any  large  dictionary  will  afford  abundant  illustration  of  obsolete 
words  and  senses  of  words.  See,  for  example,  such  a  dictionary  under 
bower,  cheer,  favor,  secure,  convince,  instance,  insist,  condescend,  ivizard, 
comply,  soon,  wot,  mote,  iv/iil<>/n,  trmr,  hi<)ht. 


INTRODUCTION.  XXI 

remain  perfect  forever,  since  the  pronunciation  of  every 
language  is  constantly  changing  so  long  as  the  language 
is  alive  at  all.  In  the  last  five  hundred  years  the  pro- 
nunciation of  English  has  undergone  a  complete  trans- 
formation. Our  spelling,  also,  has  been  much  altered, 
but,  as  everybody  knows,  it  is  far  from  doing  its  duty 
as  an  indicator  of  the  sounds  of  words. 

IV.  Inflection,  as  we  have  learned,  is  a  change  in  the 
form  of  a  word  indicating  its  construction  (or  relation  to 
other  words  in  the  sentence).  Thus,  tvalk,  walks,  walking, 
walked,  are  all  inflectional  forms  of  the  same  verb. 

In  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great,  in  the  ninth  century, 
our  language  had  many  inflectional  forms  which  it  has 
since  lost.  Its  history,  indeed,  is  in  great  part  the 
history  of  these  losses  in  inflection.  English  of  the 
present  day  has  very  few  inflectional  forms,  replacing 
them  by  the  use  of  various  phrases  (see  p.  xvi). 
The  study  of  such  changes  does  not  come  within  the 
scope  of  this  book;  but  a  few  of  them  must  be  men- 
tioned, from  time  to  time,  to  illustrate  modern  forms 
and  constructions. 

V.  The  changes  to  which  our  language  has  been 
subjected  in  the  matter  of  grammatical  construction  are 
numerous  and  complicated.  The  general  tendency, 
however,  especially  for  the  past  two  hundred  years,  has 
been  in  the  direction  of  law  and  order.  Hence  very 
many  constructions  which  are  now  regarded  as  errors 
were  in  former  times  perfectly  acceptable.  In  reading 
Shakspere,  for  instance,  we  are  continually  meeting 
with  forms  and  expressions  which  would  be  ungram- 
matical  in  a  modern  English  writer.  Two  practical 
cautions  are  necessary:  — 


XXU  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

(1)  A  construction  which  is  ungramniatical  in  modern 
English  cannot  be  defended  by  quoting  Shakspere. 

(2)  Shakspere  must  not  be  accused  of  u  bad  grammar  " 
because  he  does  not  observe  all  the  rules  of  modern 
English  syntax. 

The  language  which  one  uses  should  always  fit  the  occasion. 

Colloquial  English  (that  is,  the  language  of  ordinary 
conversation)  admits  many  words,  phrases,  forms,  and 
constructions  which  would  be  out  of  place  in  a  dignified 
oration  or  a  serious  poem. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  absurd  always  to  "  talk  like 
a  book,"  that  is,  to  maintain,  in  ordinary  conversation, 
the  language  appropriate  to  a  speech  or  an  elaborate 
essay.  We  should  not  "  make  little  fishes  talk  like 
whales." 

In  general,  written  language  is  expected  to  be  more 
careful  and  exact  than  spoken  language.  A  familiar 
letter,  however,  may  properly  be  written  as  one  would 
talk. 

The  poetical  style  admits  many  archaic  (that  is,  old) 
words,  forms,  and  constructions  that  would  be  out  of 
place  in  prose.  It  is  also  freer  than  prose  with  respect 
to  the  order  or  arrangement  of  words. 

The  solemn  style  resembles  in  many  ways  the  style  of 
poetry.  In  particular  it  preserves  such  words  as  thou 
and  ye,  and  such  forms  as  hath,  doth,  saith,  findest, 
findeth,  and  the  like,  which  have  long  been  obsolete  in 
everyday  language. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER    I.* 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

1.  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means  of  spoken 
or  written  words. 

Words  are  signs  made  to  indicate  thought. 

2.  Some  words  express  definite  ideas :  as,  horse,  sunset^ 
run,  headlong. 

Other  words  (like  to,  from,  at,  is,  was,  though)  express 
thought  vaguely  or  in  a  very  general  way.  Their  use 
in  language  is  to  connect  the  more  definite  words,  and 
to  show  their  relations  to  each  other. 

3.  The  relation  in  which  a  word  stands  to  other  words  in 
connected  speech  is  called  its  Construction. 

The  construction  of  English  words  is  shown  in  three 
ways  :  (1)  by  their  form ;  (2)  by  their  order ;  (3)  by  the 
use  of  little  words  like  to,  from,  is,  etc. 

4.  Inflection  is  a  change  in  the  form  of  a  word  which  indicates 
a  change  in  its  meaning :  as,  George,  George's ;  man,  men ;  kills, 
killed. 

5.  Grammar  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  Forms  and  the 
Constructions  of  words. 

6.  The  rules  of  grammar  derive  their  authority  from 
custom  or  usage.  They  agree  in  general  with  the  proc- 
esses of  thought. 

*  This  chapter  summarizes  some  of  the  general  principles  explained  in 

the  introductory  chapters. 

1 


2  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE   PARTS    OF   SPEECH. 

7.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day; 

The  lowing  herd  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

A  study  of  this  stanza  of  poetry  shows  that  different 
words  in  it  have  different  tasks  to  perform  in  expressing 
the  poet's  thought. 

Thus,  tolls,  wind,  leaves  assert  or  declare  that  some- 
body or  something  is  acting  in  some  manner.  Herd,  plow- 
man, world  are  the  names  of  persons  or  things.  Weary 
is  not  the  name  of  anything,  but  it  describes  the  ivay. 
And  calls  up  no  picture  in  our  minds,  as  plowman,  or 
herd,  or  darkness  does ;  it  merely  connects  the  fourth  line 
of  the  stanza  with  the  third.  Of  in  the  first  line  shows 
the  relation  between  knell  and  day.  Me  is  not  the  name 
of  anybody,  but  it  nevertheless  stands  for  a  person,  — 
the  speaker  or  writer  of  the  poem. 

Every  word  has  its  own  work  to  do  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  To  understand  the  different  tasks  performed 
by  different  kinds  of  words  is  the  first  business  of  all 
students  of  language. 

8.  In  accordance  with  their  various  uses,  words  are  divided 
into  classes  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

9.  There  are  eight  parts  of  speech  :  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Adjec- 
tives, Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Inter- 
jections.* 

*  The  definitions  that  follow  should  not  be  committed  to  memory  at  this 
point.    They  are  for  reference,  and  for  use  as  a  review  lesson  (after  p.  64). 


PARTS    OF  SPEECH.  6 

1.  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Examples  :  Charles,  John,  Mary,  man,  woman,  boy,  girl, 
London,  Paris,  city,  town,  street,  horse,  cat,  dog,  wood,  iron, 
hammer,  shovel,  goodness,  truth. 

2.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun.  It  desig- 
nates a  person,  place,  or  thing,  without  naming  it. 

Examples  :  I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  this,  that,  who,  which,  whoever. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  are  called  substantives. 

3.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  which  limits  or  defines  a  substan- 
tive, usually  by  attributing  some  quality. 

Examples  :  good,  bad,  red,  green,  blue,  heavy,  large,  pleasant, 
disagreeable,  mysterious,  idle. 

4.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  can  assert  something  (usually 
an  act)  concerning  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Examples  :   runs,  jumps,  travels,  study,  dig,  fly,  swim,  try. 

5.  An  Adverb  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective, 
or  another  adverb. 

Examples  :  quickly,  slowly,  angrily,  carefully,  here,  up,  down. 

6.  A  Preposition  shows  the  relation  of  the  substantive  which 
follows  it  to  some  other  word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

Examples  :  of,  in,  by,  from,  with,  during,  over,  under. 

7.  A  Conjunction  connects  words  or  groups  of  words. 
Examples  :  and,  or,  but,  for,  because,  however,  if. 

8.  An  Interjection  is  a  cry  or  exclamatory  sound  expressing 
surprise,  anger,  pleasure,  or  some  other  emotion  or  feeling. 

Examples  :  oh  !  ah  !  pshaw  !  fie  !  ha  !  alas  !  bravo  I 


4  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    III. 
NOUNS. 

10.  One  of  the  first  duties  of  language  is  that  of 
naming  persons  and  things.  It  is  impossible  to  express 
our  thoughts  unless  we  can,  as  the  saying  is,  "  call 
things  by  their  right  names." 

In  the  following  passage  the  italicized  words  are  the 
names  of  various  objects.     Such  words  are  called  nouns. 

There  was  a  most  ingenious  architect,  who  had  contrived  a  new 
method  for  building  houses,  by  beginning  at  the  roof  and  working 
downward  to  the  foundation  ;  which  he  justified  to  me  by  the  like 
practice  of  those  two  prudent  insects,  the  bee  and  the  spider. 
—  Swift. 

The  word  noun  is  derived  from  the  French  word  for  "  name." 

11.  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  Person,  Place,  or  Thing. 

Examples  :  Charles,  Mary,  man,  woman,  boy,  girl,  horse,  cow, 
cat,  camel,  city,  town,  village,  kitchen,  shop,  Chicago,  Texas, 
California,  house,  box,  stable,  car,  boat,  cm-tain,  hatchet. 

12.  Nouns  are  divided  into  two  classes :  (i)  Proper  nouns  ; 
(2)  Common  nouns. 

The  difference  may  be  seen  in  the  following  examples : 

Charles  rode  the  horse  to  water. 
The  boy  rode  the  horse  to  water. 

Charles  is  a  person's  own  name,  —  the  name  which 
belongs  to  him  and  by  which  he  is  distinguished  from 
other  persons.  It  is  therefore  called  a  proper  name  or 
proper  noun,  "  proper"  in  this  use  meaning  "one's  own." 


K 


NOUNS.  5 

Boy,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular person.  It  is  a  general  term  for  any  one  of  a 
large  class  of  persons,  —  male  human  beings  below  the 
age  of  manhood.  Hence  it  is  called  a  common  noun, 
that  is,  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of  objects. 

The  same  distinction  is  found  in  the  names  of  places 
and  things.  Boston,  Cincinnati,  London,  Paris,  Ger- 
many, France,  Mt.  Washington,  Sahara,  are  proper  nouns. 
City,  country,  mountain,  desert,  are  common  nouns. 

13.  A  Proper  Noun  is  the  special  name  by  which  a  particular 
person,  place,  or  thing  is  distinguished  from  others  of  the  same 
kind  or  class. 

Examples  :  John,  James,  Mary,  Elizabeth,  Washington,  Grant, 
Shakspere,  Milton,  Rome,  London,  Cuba,  Rocky  Mountains,  Cape 
Hatteras,  Klondike. 

14.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  which  may  be  applied  to  any 
one  of  a  whole  class  of  similar -persons,  places,  or  things. 

Examples  :  man,  woman,  child,  dog,  cow,  fairy,  street,  house, 
monument,  knife,  bookcase. 

In  writing,  proper  nouns  begin  with  a  capital  letter 
and  common  nouns  usually  begin  with  a  small  letter.* 

15.  The  English  word  "  thing  "  is  not  confined  in  its 
use  to  objects  that  we  can  see,  hear,  taste,  or  touch. 
We  may  say,  for  example  :  — 

Patriotism  is  a  good  thing. 

Cowardice  is  a  contemptible  thing. 

I  wish  there  were  no  such  thing  as  sorroiv. 

*  Common  nouns  and  adjectives  often  begin  with  capital  letters  when 
they  designate  the  topics  or  main  points  of  definitions  or  similar  state- 
ments.    Such  capitals  are  called  Emphatic  (or  Topical)  Capitals. 


6  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Such  words  as  patriotism  and  cowardice,  then,  come 
mider  the  general  heading  of  names  of  things,  and  are 
therefore  nouns. 

16.  When  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  words,  the  whole  group  may  be 
regarded  as  a  single  noun.     Thus,  — 

Charles  Allen  is  my  brother. 

"The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner"  was  written  by  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge. 

The  Isthmus  of  Panama  joins  North  America  and  South  America. 


EXERCISE. 


In  the  following  passages  pick  out  the  nouns,  and 
tell  whether  each  is  a  common  or  a  proper  noun. 

1.  Drake  with  his  one  ship  and  eighty  men  held  boldly  on ; 
and,  passing  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  untra versed  as  yet  by  any 
Englishman,  swept  the  unguarded  coast  of  Chili  and  Peru,  and 
loaded  his  bark  with  gold-dust  and  silver-ingots  of  Potosi,  and 
with  the  pearls,  emeralds,  and  diamonds  which  formed  the  cargo 
of  the  great  galleon  that  sailed  once  a  year  from  Lima  to  Cadiz. 

2.  In  that  same  village,  and  in  one  of  these  very  houses  (which, 
to  tell  the  precise  truth,  was  sadly  time-worn  and  weather-beaten), 
there  lived  many  years  since,  while  the  country  was  yet  a  province 
of  Great  Britain,  a  simple,  good-natured  fellow,  of  the  name  of 
Rip  Van  Winkle.  He  was  a  descendant  of  the  Van  Winkles  who 
figured  so  gallantly  in  the  chivalrous  days  of  Peter  Stuyvesant 
and  accompanied  him  to  the  siege  of  Fort  Christina. 

3.  An  inhabitant  of  Truro  told  me  that  about  a  fortnight  after 
the  St.  John  was  wrecked  at  Cohasset,  he  found  two  bodies  on 
the  shore  at  the  Clay  Pounds. 

4.  Oliver  Goldsmith  was  born  on  the  tenth  of  November,  1728, 
at  Pallas,  or  Pallasmore,  county  of  Longford,  in  Ireland. 


ABSTRACT  AND    COLLECTIVE  NOUNS.  7 

CHAPTER   IV. 

SPECIAL  CLASSES   OF  NOUNS* 

17.  Certain  classes  of  common  nouns  receive  special 
names.  Particularly  important  classes  are  abstract  nouns 
and  collective  nouns. 

18.  In  §  15  we  learned  that  words  like  patriotism, 
cowardice,  and  sorrow,  which  are  the  names  of  ideas  or 
qualities,  are  nouns.     Further  examples  follow :  — 

Pity  is  akin  to  love. 

Order  is  heaven's  first  law. 

A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

Virtue  is  bold,  and  goodness  never  fearful. 

Such  names  as  pit i/,  wrath,  etc.,  are  called  abstract  nouns. 

19.  An  Abstract  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  or  general  idea. 

Examples  :  goodness,  sweetness,  wisdom,  ignorance,  truth, 
amiability,  sauciness,  folly,  virtue,  wickedness,  liberty. 

Many  abstract  nouns  end  in  -ness  and  -ty. 

20.  In  the  following  sentences  the  italicized  nouns 
are  the  names  of  groups  or  collections  of  persons :  — 

A  crowd  gathered  almost  in  an  instant. 
The  whole  class  studied  the  wrong  lesson. 
The  crew  of  the  wrecked  steamer  were  all  saved. 
These  boys  formed  a  club  to  practise  rowing. 
Captain  Smith  is  an  officer  in  the  navy. 

Such  names  are  called  collective  nouns. 

*  This  chapter  should  not  be  studied  uutil  the  pupil  is  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  two  main  classes  of  nouns,  proper  and  common.  The  teacher  may 
prefer  to  postpone  it  until  after  page  36. 


8  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

21.  A  Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  Group,  Class,  or 
Multitude,  and  not  of  a  single  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Examples  :  class,  fleet,  army,  host,  gang,  company,  regiment, 
party,  people,  nation,  multitude,  flock,  herd,  set,  lot. 

22.  Collective  nouns  are  usually  common  nouns,  but 
they  become  proper  nouns  when  they  are  used  as  the 
special  name  of  a  particular  group,  class,  or  company. 
Thus,  — 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  meets  in  Washington. 
The  Philadelphia  Base  Ball  Club  will  play  at  New  York  to- 
morrow. 

The  First  Class  will  recite  at  ten  o'clock. 

23.  Any  word,  when  mentioned  merely  as  a  word,  is 
a  noun.     Thus,  — 

Is  is  one  of  the  shortest  words  in  our  language. 

Was  is  a  verb. 

And.  is  a  conjunction. 


EXERCISES. 


In  the  following  passages  pick  out  all  the  abstract 
and  all  the  collective  nouns  that  you  can  find. 

1.  A  number  of  young  people  were  assembled  in  the  music 
room. 

"~2.  He  leads  towards  Rome  a  band  of  warlike  Goths. 

3.  By  ten  o'clock  the  whole  party  were  assembled  at  the  Park. 

4.  Have  I  not  reason  to  look  pale  and  dead? 

5.  People  were  terrified  by  the  force  of  their  own  imagination. 

6.  The  Senate  has  letters  from  the  general. 

7.  You  misuse  the  reverence  of  your  place. 


ABSTRACT  AND    COLLECTIVE  NOUNS.  9 

8.  There  is  hardly  any  place,  or  any  company,  where  you 
may  not  gain  knowledge  if  you  please. 

9.  Here  comes  another  troop  to  seek  for  you. 

10.  Their  mastiffs  are  of  unmatchable  corn-age. 

11.  Our  family  dined  in  the  field,  and  we  sat,  or  rather  re- 
clined, round  a  temperate  repast. 

12.  Our  society  will  not  break  up,  but  we  shall  settle  in  some 
other  place. 

13.  Let  nobody  blame  him ;  his  scorn  I  approve. 

14.  The  Senate  have  concluded 

To  give  this  day  a  crown  to  mighty  Caesar. 

15.  He  is  banished,  as  enemy  to  the  people  and  his  country. 

16.  Society  has  been  called  the  happiness  of  life. 

17.  His  army  is  a  ragged  multitude 

Of  hinds  and  peasants,  rude  and  merciless. 

18.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  knowledge  and  wisdom. 

19.  All  the  country  in  a  general  voice  cried  hate  upon  him. 

20.  The  king  hath  called  his  Parliament. 

21.  Let  all  the  number  of  the  stars  give  light  to  thy  fair  way ! 

H. 

Give  some  collective  noun  which  stands  for  a  number 
or  group  of  — 

Men,  birds,  cows,  thieves,  marbles,  schoolchildren,  sailors,  sol- 
diers, football  players,  musicians,  robbers,  pirates,  books,  postage 
stamps,  senators,  Members  of  Congress,  partners  in  business. 

in. 
Give  an  abstract  noun  which  names  the  idea  or  qual- 
ity suggested  by  each  of   the  words  in  the  following- 
list.     Thus,  — 

True.  —  The  noun  is  truth. 

True,  false,  good,  bad,  lazy,  careless,  free,  brave,  sinful,  cautious, 
just,  beautiful,  amiable,  insane,  passionate,  natural,  hasty,  valiant, 
angry,  grieving,  sorry,  holy,  evil,  unjust,  accurate,  simple. 


10  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   V. 

PRONOUNS. 

24.  In  expressing  our  thoughts  we  often  have  occasion 
to  mention  a  person,  place,  or  thing  without  naming  it. 
Thus,  — 

The  boy  found  a  ball  on  the  ground.  He  picked  it  up  and  put 
it  into  his  pocket. 

Here  the  boy  and  the  ball  are  mentioned  at  the  out- 
set, but  we  do  not  wish  to  keep  repeating  the  nouns  boy 
and  ball.  Hence  we  use  he  and  his  to  designate  the 
boy,  and  it  to  designate  the  ball.  These  words  are  not 
nouns,  for  they  do  not  name  anything.  They  are  called 
pronouns,  because  they  stand  in  the  place  of  nouns  (pro 
being  a  Latin  word  for  "instead  of"). 

25.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun.  It  desig- 
nates a  person,  place,  or  thing  without  naming  it. 

26.  Pronouns  are  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
expression  of  thought;  but  they  make  it  possible  to 
avoid  awkward  and  confusing  repetition.  Compare  the 
passages  in  the  parallel  columns  below. 

Thought  expressed  Thought  expressed 

with  Pronouns  without  Pronouns 

The  savages  had  two  canoes  The  savages  had  two  canoes 

with    them.      They    had  hauled      with  the  savages.     The  savages 
them  up  on  the  shore.  had  hauled  the  canoes  up  on 

the  shore. 

If  you  try  to  talk  without  using  I,  you,  he,  she,  or  it, 
you  will  soon  discover  what  pronouns  are  good  for. 


PRONOUNS.  11 

27.  The  main  classes  of  pronouns  are  :  Personal,  Rela- 
tive, Interrogative,  Demonstrative.  Their  distinction 
and  uses  will  be  studied  in  later  chapters. 

For  the  present,  we  may  content  ourselves  with 
recognizing  some  of  the  most  important  pronouns  when 
we  see  them.  Such  are:  /,  me,  you,  we,  he,  his,  him, 
she,  her,  they,  their,  them. 

28.  Since  the  chief  use  of  pronouns  is  to  replace 
nouns,  the  constructions  of  these  two  parts  of  speech 
are  almost  always  the  same.  It  is  therefore  convenient 
to  have  a  term  which  means  "noun  or  pronoun,"  and 
the  term  used  for  this  purpose  is  substantive. 

29.  Nouns  and  Pronouns  are  called  Substantives. 


EXERCISES. 

I. 

In  the  following  passages  pick  out  what  nouns  and 
pronouns  you  can  find. 

If  you  can,  tell  what  noun  is  replaced  by  each  pronoun. 

1.  Goneril,  the  elder,  declared  that  she  loved  her  father  more 
than  words  could  give  out,  that  he  was  dearer  to  her  than  the 
light  of  her  own  eyes. 
,—£.  Bassanio  took  the  ring  and  vowed  never  to  part  with  it. 

3.  The  floor  of  the  cave  was  dry  and  level,  and  had  a  sort  of 
small  loose  gravel  upon  it. 

—  4.  Having  now  brought  all  my  things  on  shore,  and  secured 
them,  I  went  back  to  my  boat,  and  rowed,  or  paddled  her  along 
the  shore,  to  her  old  harbor,  where  I  laid  her  up.  —  Robinson 
Crusoe. 

5.  Heaven  lies  about  us  in  our  infancy. 
«_6.  Blessed  is  he  who  has  found  his  work. 


12  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

>_ 7.  la  fact,  Tom  declared  it  was  of  no  use  to  -work  on  his 

farm;  it  was  the  most  pestilent  little  piece  of  ground  in  the 
whole  country;  everything  about  it  went  wrong,  and  would  go 
wrong,  in  spite  of  him. 

8.  When  Portia  parted  with  her  husband,  she  spoke  cheeringly 
to  him,  and  bade  him  bring  his  dear  friend  along  with  him  when 
he  returned. 

n. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  pronouns. 

1.  A  thought  struck ,  and wrote  a  letter  to  one  of 

—  friends. 


2.  The    flowers    were   bending  — —  heads,    as    if  were 

dreaming  of  the  rainbow  and  dew. 

3.  We  make  way  for  the  man  who  boldly  pushes  past . 

4.  "  That 's  a  brave  man,"  said  Wellington,  when saw  a 

soldier  turn  pale  as marched  against  a  battery  :  " knows 

danger,  and  faces " 

5.  I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take  ;  but,  as  for , 

give liberty,  or  give death. 

6.  There,  in noisy  mansion,  skilled  to  rule, 

The  village  master  taught little  school. 

7.  Wordsworth  helps  us  to  live best  and  highest  life ; 

is  a  strengthening  and  purifying  influence   like own 


mountains. 

8.  As  the  queen  hesitated  to  pass  'on,  young  Raleigh,  throw- 
ing   cloak  from  his  shoulder,  laid on  the  miry  spot,  so 

as  to  ensure stepping  over dryshod. 

9.  Tender-handed  stroke  a  nettle, 

And stings  you  for pains  ; 

Grasp like  a  man  of  mettle, 

And soft  as  silk  remains. 

10.  Whatever  people   may  think  of  ■ ,  do  that  which 

believe  to  be  right. 


*■&' 


11.  No    man    is    so  foolish   but may  give    another  good 

counsel  sometimes,  and  no  man  so  wise  but may  easily  err. 


VERBS.  13 

CHAPTER   VI. 

VERBS   AND   VERB-PHRASES. 

30.  In  order  to  express  our  thoughts  we  must  be  able 
not  only  to  "  call  things  by  their  right  names,"  but  to 
make  statements,  —  that  is,  to  assert. 

31.  Let  us  examine  the  following  groups  of  words :  — 

Birds  fly.  Fishes  swim. 

The  boy  played  ball  well. 

Each  of  these  expressions  contains  a  word  {fly-,  swim, 
played)  which  expresses  action.  Thus,  fly  expresses  the 
action  of  the  birds  ;  swim,  that  of  the  fishes  ;  played, 
that  of  the  boy. 

But  these  three  words,  fly,  swim,,  and  played,  not  only 
express  action,  they  state  or  assert  the  action.  Thus,  in 
"  Birds  fly,"  it  is  the  word  fly  which  makes  the  asser- 
tion that  the  birds  act  in  a  certain  way. 

Such  words  are  called  verbs. 

Language,  then,  must  furnish  us  not  only  with  nouns, 
by  means  of  which  we  can  name  persons,  places,  or 
things,  but  with  words  of  another  kind,  by  means  of 
which  we  can  state  or  assert  something  about  persons, 
places,  and  things. 

32.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  can  assert  something  (usually 
an  act)  concerning  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 

In  each  of  the  following  examples  pick  out  the  word 
which  states  or  asserts  some  act :  — 

The  travellers  climbed  the  mountain. 
Wellington  defeated  Napoleon  at  Waterloo. 
The  snow  fell  in  great  flakes  all  day  long. 


14  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

33.  Most  verbs  express  action.  Some,  however,  merely 
express  state  or  condition.      Thus,  — 

You  lack  energy. 

This  lake  abounds  in  fish. 

The  soldier  lay  dead  on  the  battlefield. 

34.  Is  (are,  was,  were,  etc.),  may,  can,  must,  might, 
shall,  will,  could,  would,  should,  have,  had,  do,  did, 
have  a  peculiar  use  in  what  are  called  verb-phrases  :  as,  — 

The  company  is  charging  up  the  hill. 
The  house  may  fall  at  any  moment. 
We  can  swim  to  the  boat. 
Our  friends  will  search  the  woods  in  vain. 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences  the  assertion  is  made 
by  means  of  the  phrase  is  charging  ;  in  the  second  it  is 
the  phrase  may  fall  that  asserts  the  action,  and  so  on. 

Each  of  these  phrases  is  formed  by  combining  is, 
may,  can,  etc.,  with  some  word  that  expresses  action, 
charging,  fall,  swim,  search. 

English  has  many  verh-phrases,  by  means  of  which  it  is  able  to  express 
action  in  various  ways.     They  will  be  studied  in  later  chapters. 

35.  Is  (are,  was,  were,  etc.),  may,  can,  must,  might,  shall, 
luill,  could,  would,  should,  have,  had,  do,  did,  when  used 
in  verb-phrases,  are  called  auxiliary  (that  is,  "  aiding ") 
verbs,  because  they  help  other  words  to  express  action 
or  state  of  some  particular  kind. 

36.  The  auxiliary  verb  may  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  verb-phrase  by  other  words.     Thus, — 

Tom  may  perhaps  find  his  purse. 

We  were  rapidly  drifting  down  the  river. 

Washington  has  never  lost  the  affection  of  his  countrymen. 


VERBS  AND   VERB-PHRASES.  15 

EXERCISES. 

I. 

In  each  of  the  following  passages  pick  out  all  the 
verbs  and  verb-phrases  that  you  can  find. 

1.  Count  Otto  stares  till  his  eyelids  ache. 

2.  But  so  slowly  did  I  creep  along,  that  I  heard  a  clock  in  a 
cottage  strike  four  before  I  turned  down  the  lane  from  Slough  to 
Eton. 

3.  Like  as  the  waves  make  towards  the  pebbled  shore, 
So  do  our  minutes  hasten  to  their  end. 

4.  If  it  rains,  we  converse  within  doors. 

5.  The  book  you  mention  lies  now  upon  my  table. 

6.  The  fleet  in  the  Downs  sent  their  captains  on  shore,  hoisted 
the  King's  pennon,  and  blockaded  the  Thames. 

7.  The  little  company  of  the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers,"  as  after-times 
loved  to  call  them,  landed  on  the  barren  coast  of  Massachusetts, 
at  a  spot  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Plymouth,  in  memory 
of  the  last  English  port  at  which  they  touched. 

II. 

Pick  out  all  the  verbs  and  verb-phrases  that  you  can 
find  in  the  second  Exercise  on  page  12. 

in. 
Fill  each  blank  with  a  verb  or  verb-phrase. 

A  young  friend  of  mine a  clever  little  dog,  whose  name 

Jack.     He his  master  whenever  he to  school,  and 


always for  him  until  the  children  .     Then  the  dog 

along  at  the  boy's  heels  until  home in  sight.     Once  some 

rascal Jack  and him  up  in  a  cellar  a  long  way  from  home. 

But  Jack and his  master  again.     I  never a  dog 

that  -         on  his  hind  legs  so  gracefully  as  my  friend's  Jack. 


16  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    VII. 

SENTENCES. 

37.  Language,  as  we  have  already  learned,  is  thought 
expressed  in  words. 

In  speaking  or  writing,  however,  we  do  not  utter  our 
thoughts  in  single  words,  but  in  groups  of  words  which  are 
so  put  together  as  to  express  connected  ideas.     Thus,  — 

Birds  fly.  Iron  sinks. 

Wood  floats.  Lions  roar. 

These  are  very  simple  groups,  but  each  expresses 
some  thought  and  is,  in  a  manner,  complete  in  itself. 

38.  If  we  study  a  longer  passage,  we  see  at  once  that 
it  may  be  broken  up  into  a  number  of  groups,  some 
larger  and  some  smaller,  each  of  which  is  a  kind  of 
unit.     Thus,  — 

The  soldier  awoke  at  break  of  day.  |  He  sprang  up  from  his 
hard  couch  on  the  ground.  [  The  drums  were  beating.  |  It  was 
time  to  fall  in  for  the  day's  march. 

The  passage  falls  into  four  of  these  groups,  each 
standing  by  itself  and  expressing  a  single  thought. 

Such  groups  of  words  are  sentences  of  a  very  simple 
kind. 

39.  In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  study  the  structure  of 
sentences,  —  that  is,  the  parts  out  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed and  the  way  in  which  those  parts  are  put  together. 

For  the  present,  we  may  content  ourselves  with  fram- 
ing a  few  sentences  for  practice.  This  we  can  easily  do, 
for  we  have  spoken  in  sentences  ever  since  we  learned 
to  talk. 


SENTENCES.  1 7 

40.  Make  a  short  statement  about  each  of  the  persons 
and  things  mentioned  in  the  list  below.     Thus, — 

Lions.     Lions  are  found  in  Africa. 
Tree.      A  large  tree  grew  in  the  square. 

Ball,  kite,  top,  doll,  carriage,  dogs,  cats,  schoolhouse,  John,  Mary, 
tigers,  fisherman,  carpenters,  book,  history,  sugar,  leather,  vinegar, 
apples,  plums,  melon,  salt. 

In  each  of  the  statements  you  have  expressed  a  thought 
in  language.  This  you  have  done  by  means  of  putting 
together  (combining)  words  into  sentences. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

SENTENCES.  — SUBJECT   AND  PREDICATE. 

41.  In  the  expression  of  ideas  words  are  combined  into  Sen- 
tences. 

42.  In  its  simplest  form  a  sentence  is  the  statement 
of  a  single  fact.      Thus,  — 

Fire  burns.  The  king  reigns. 

Water  freezes.  Victoria  is  queen. 

Each  of  these  sentences  consists,  it  will  be  observed, 
of  two  parts  :  — 

(1)  a  word  or  words  designating  the  person  or  thing 
that  is  spoken  of  (fire,  rooter,  the  king,   Victoria)  ; 

(2)  a  word  or  words  telling  something  about  that  person 
or  thing  (burns,  freezes,  reigns,  is  queen). 

The   first  of  these  parts  is  called  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  and  the  second  is  called  the  predicate. 
Accordingly  we  have  the  following  rules  :  - 


18  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

43.  Every  Sentence  consists  of  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 
The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  that  person,  place,  or  thing  which 

is  spoken  of ;  the  Predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject. 

44.  A  Declarative  Sentence  is  a  sentence  which  declares  or 
asserts  something  as  a  fact. 

There  are  several  forms  of  the  sentence  besides  the  declarative  sen- 
tence.    These  will  be  studied  later. 

45.  In  such  a  sentence  as 

Victoria  reigns, 

we  have  a  very  simple  form  of  both  subject  and  predi- 
cate. Victoria,  the  subject,  is  a  single  noun;  and 
reigns,  the  predicate,  is  a  single  verb.     So  in 

Fire  burns.  Ships  sail. 

Horses  gallop.  Truth  prevails. 

The  subject  may,  however,  be  not  a  noun  but  a  pro- 
noun; for  the  office  of  pronouns  is  to  stand  in  the 
place  of  nouns.     Thus,  in  the  sentence 

He  laughs, 

he  is  the  subject,  and  laughs  is  the  predicate. 

If  we  examine  a  somewhat  longer  sentence,  we  shall 
see  that  it  is  still  made  up  of  the  same  two  parts,  — 
subject  and  predicate.      Thus,  in 

The  old  chief  of  the  Mohawks  |  fought  desperately, 

the  whole  subject  is  The  old  chief  of  the  Mohawks,  and 
the  whole  predicate  is  fought  desperately. 

46.  The  subject  usually  precedes  the  predicate ;  but 
not  always.     Thus,  — 

Down  came  the  rain.  Up  flew  the  window. 

Ran  Coll,  our  dog.  Sad  was  the  day. 


SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  19 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  verbs,  verb-phrases,  nouns,  or  pro- 
nouns, so  as  to  make  each  example  a  complete  sentence. 
Tell  what  it  is  that  you  have  inserted  in  each  case. 

1.  The  teacher at  her  desk  writing. 

2.  The  captain his  company  in  the  suburbs  of  the  town. 

3.  The  strife  with  unremitting  fury  for  three  mortal 

hours. 

4.  The  first  permanent  settlement  on  the  Chesapeake in 

the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  James  the  First. 

5.  I an  aged  beggar  in  my  walk. 

6.  The  English  army too  exhausted  for  pursuit. 

7.  The  owls all  night  long. 

8.  A  crow a  nest  in  one  of  the  young  elm  trees. 

9.  A  famous  man Robin  Hood. 

10.  In  the  confusion,  five  or  six  of  the  enemy . 

11.  The  eyes  of  the  savage ■  with  fury. 

12.  A  little  leak a  great  ship. 

13.  The  blacksmith the  red-hot  iron. 

14.  A  sudden clouded  the  sky. 

15.  My was  then  in  London. 

16.  The followed  us  over  the  moor. 

17.  commanded  the  American  army. 

18.  The have  wandered  about  nearly  all  day. 

19.  A  high  • blew  hats  and  bonnets  about. 

20.  The fired  a  broadside  at  the  enemy. 

21.  Many  — —  were  swimming  in  the  pool. 

22.  Down the  timber  with  a  crash. 

23.  Higher  and  higher the  sun. 

II. 
By  means  of  a  vertical  line  divide  each  of  your  com- 
pleted sentences  in  i,  above,  into  subject  and  predicate. 


20  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

COMPLETE   AND    SIMPLE   SUBJECT    AND   PREDICATE. 

47.    Examine  once  more  the  sentence  studied  in  §  45:  — 
The  old  chief  of  the  Mohawks  |  fought  desperately. 

The  whole  subject  is  the  old  chief  of  the  Mohawks,  and 
the  whole  predicate  is,  fought  desperately. 

The  most  important  word  in  the  subject  is  the  noun 
chief ;  the  most  important  word  in  the  predicate  is  the 
verb  fought.  If  we  omit  old,  the  sentence  still  makes 
sense.  So  we  may  omit  of  the  Mohawks,  or  desperately, 
without  destroying  the  sentence.  But  if  we  omit  either 
chief  or  fought,  the  remaining  words  no  longer  make 
any  statement. 

The  old  of   the  Mohawks  |  fought  desperately ;  —  or 

The  old  chief  of  the  Mohawks  j        A        desperately, 

would  be  nonsense,  for  it  would  not  express  a  thought. 

In  this  sentence,  then,  a  single  noun,  chief,  names  the 
person  concerning  whom  the  assertion  is  made,  and  a 
single  verb,  fought,  declares  or  asserts  the  action. 

The  noun  chief  is  therefore  called  the  simple  subject, 
and  the  verb  fought  the  simple  predicate  of  the  sentence. 

The  other  words  or  phrases  which  go  to  make  up  the 
whole  subject,  —  the,  old,  and  of  the  Mohawks,  —  define 
more  exactly  the  meaning  of  the  simple  subject  chief. 
The  noun  chief  by  itself  may  refer  to  any  chief  ;  but  the 
old  chief  of  the  Mohawks  is  a  well-defined  person. 

Similarly,  the  meaning  of  the  simple  predicate,  the 
verb  fought,  is  defined  or  limited  by  the  word  desperately 
(telling  how  he  fought). 


SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  21 

48.  The  Simple  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  Noun  or  Pronoun. 
The  Simple  Predicate  of  a  sentence  is  a  Verb  or  Verb-phrase. 
The  Simple  Subject,  with  such  words  as  limit  or  define  its 

meaning,  forms  the  Complete  Subject. 

The  Simple  Predicate,  with  such  words  as  limit  or  define  its 
meaning,  forms  the  Complete  Predicate. 

In  this  book  the  simple  subject  and  the  simple  predicate 
will  generally  be  called  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 
When  the  whole  or  complete  subject  or  predicate  is 
referred  to,  the  terms  complete  subject  and  complete  predi- 
cate will  be  used. 

49.  The  simple  predicate  may  be  a  verb-phrase.  Thus, — 
Fire  will  burn.  John  is  running. 

50.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  the  complete 
subject  and  the  complete  predicate  are  separated  by 
a  vertical  line,  and  the  simple  subject  and  the  simple 
predicate  are  printed  in  small  capitals :  — 

Vast  meadows  |  stretched  to  the  eastward. 

The  farmer  of  Grand  Pre"  |  lived  on  his  sunny  farm. 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  |  sleep. 

Each  horseman  [  drew  his  battle-blade. 

The  old  doctor  |  was  sitting  in  his  arm-chair. 

The  clock  I  has  struck  the  hour  of  midnight. 


%->' 


51.  We  are  now  able  to  define  a  sentence  in  a  more 
accurate  way  than  was  possible  before  we  knew  the 
meaning  of  subject  and  predicate. 

A  Sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  which  expresses  a 
thought  and  which  contains  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence  is  said 
to  be  in  the  Nominative  Case. 


22  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE. 

By  means  of  a  vertical  line  divide  the  following 
sentences  into  their  complete  subjects  and  complete 
predicates. 

In  each  sentence  point  out  the  substantive  that  is  the 
simple  subject  and  the  verb  or  verb-phrase  that  is  the 
simple  predicate. 

1.  She  roams  the  dreary  waste. 

2.  Ten  thousand  warblers  cheer  the  day. 

3.  Thou  climbest  the  mountain-top. 

4.  The  river  glideth  at  his  own  sweet  will. 

5.  The  rings  of  iron  sent  out  a  jarring  sound. 

6.  The  bolted  gates  flew  open  at  the  blast. 

7.  The  streets  ring  with  clamors. 

8.  The  courser  pawed  the  ground  with  restless  feet. 

9.  Envy  can  never  dwell  in  noble  hearts. 

10.  His  whole  frame  was  trembling. 

11.  The  wondering  stranger  round  him  gazed. 

52.  The  exercise  which  we  have  just  had  is  an  exer- 
cise in  analysis. 

Analysis  is  a  Greek  word  which  means  "  the  act  of 
breaking  up."  In  grammar  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
"  breaking  up "  or  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its 
parts,  —  subject,  predicate,  and  limiting  words.  To  dissect 
a  sentence  in  this  way  is  to  analyze  it. 

In  later  chapters  we  shall  learn  more  about  the  details 
of  grammatical  analysis. 

53.  Analysis  is  useful  not  only  because  it  helps  us 
to  get  at  the  meaning  of  a  thought,  but  because  it 
sharpens  our  wits  and  tests  our  understanding  of  what 
we  read.  Practice  in  analysis  ought  also  to  assist  us 
in  expressing  ourselves  clearly  and  correctly. 


TEE    COPULA    "IS."  23 

CHAPTER   X. 

THE   COPULA    "IS." 

54.  One  peculiar  verb  which  is  very  important  in  the 
making  of  sentences,  has  so  little  meaning  in  itself  that 
we  might  easily  fail  to  recognize  it  as  a  verb  at  all. 

This  is  the  verb  is  (in  its  different  forms),  as  seen  in 
the  following  sentences  :  — 

I  am  your  friend.  Tom  was'tived. 

The  road  is  rough.  You  toere  merry. 

These  apples  are  mellow.  The  soldiers  were  brave. 

In  all  these  examples  the  verb-forms  am,  is,  are,  was, 
were  do  not  in  themselves  tell  us  anything  about  the 
subject.  The  meaning  of  the  predicate  is  really  con- 
tained in  the  words  that  follow  the  verb  {your  friend, 
rough,  mellow,  etc.). 

Yet  if  we  omit  the  verb  we  no  longer  have  sentences :  — 

I  your  friend.  Tom  tired. 


A 


The  road     A     rough.  You  merry. 

These  apples  mellow.  The  soldiers  brave. 

55.  The  verb  is,  then,  does  two  things  :  — 

(1)  It  asserts,  or  makes  the  statement  (for,  omitting  it, 
we  have  no  statement) ; 

(2)  It  connects  the  subject  with  the  word  or  words  in 
the  complete  predicate  that  possess  a  distinct  meaning. 

Hence  the  verb  is  (in  its  various  forms)  is  called  the 
copula,  that  is,  the  "  joiner  "  or  "  link." 

56.  The   forms    of   the  verb  is  are  very  irregular. 
They  will  be  more  fully  studied  in  later  chapters. 


24  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Meantime  we  should  recognize  am,  is,  are,  wa.%  were, 
as  forms  of  this  verb,  and  has  been,  have  been,  had  been, 
shall  be,  and  will  be,  as  verb-phrases  belonging  to  it. 

57.  In  sentences  like  those  in  §  54,  the  simple  predi- 
cates are  the  verbs  am,  is,  are,  etc.* 

58.  The  verb  is  (in  its  various  forms)  is  not  always 
a  mere  copula-  It  is  sometimes  emphatic  and  has  the 
sense  of  exist.     Thus,  —  '. 

I  think.     Therefore  I  am.     [That  is,  I  exist.'] 
Whatever  is,  is  right.     [That  is,  Whatever  exists.] 


EXERCISES.  -* 

I.  - 

Make  the  following  groups  of  words  into  sentences 
by  inserting  some  form  of  the  copula  (is,  are,  etc.). 

1.  Fishes  cold-blooded  animals.  4.  You  studious  children. 

2.  Milton  a  great  poet.  5.  Thou  the  man. 

3.  Washington  the  Father  of  his  6.  You  a  studious  child. 
Country.  7.  He  a  colonel. 

II. 
Find  the  copula.     Tell  what  it  connects. 

1.  The  stranger  is  an  Austrian. 

2.  Your  friends  will  be  glad  to  see  you. 

3.  We  shall  be  too  tired  to  walk  home. 

4.  Seals  are  amphibious  animals. 

5.  I  am  an  American  citizen. 

6.  The  streets  were  wet  and  muddy. 

*  Many  grammarians  regard  is  and  the  noun  or  adjective  that  follows 
it  (is  rough,  are  mellow,  etc.)  as  the  simple  predicate  ;  hut  the  nomen- 
clature here  adopted  is  equally  scientific  and  more  convenient, 


INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES.  25 

CHAPTER   XI. 

INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES.     I. 

59.  All  the  sentences  which  we  have  so  far  studied 
are  declarative  sentences ;  that  is,  they  declare  or  assert  some- 
thing (see  §  44). 

But  we  do  not  use  language  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
telling  things.  Whether  we  talk  or  write,  we  are  con- 
tinually asking  questions,  giving  orders,  and  making  requests, 
and  we  often  give  vent  to  our  emotions  by  exclaiming. 

There  should,  then,  be  special  forms  of  the  sentence 
to  express  some  or  all  of  these  modes  of  thought. 
These  special  forms  we  shall  now  study  under  their 
several  heads :  (1)  interrogative  sentences  ;  (2)  imperative 
sentences  ;  (3)  exclamatory  sentences. 

60.  If  we  examine  the  following  sentences, 

Is  John  at  home  ? 

Have  these  men  a  conscience? 

Who  leads  in  the  race  ? 

we  observe  that  they  do  not  assert  anything.  On  the 
contrary,  they  make  inquiries ;  they  are  questions.  Yet 
without  doubt  each  of  these  examples  is  a  sentence  ; 
for  each  expresses  a  thought  and  contains  a  subject  and 
a  predicate.  Thus,  in  the  first  example  John  is  the 
subject  and  is  at  home  the  complete  predicate  as  truly 
as  in  the  declarative  sentence  "  John  is  at  home." 
Such  sentences  are  called  interrogative  sentences. 

The  word  interrogative  means  merely  "questioning."  A  question  is 
often  called  an  interrogation. 

61.  A  sentence  that  asks  a  question  is  called  an  Interrogative 
Sentence. 


■26  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 

I. 

Ask  questions  about  ten  objects  in  the  schoolroom. 

Ask  ten  questions  about  some  person  or  event  famous 
in  American  history. 

You  have  just  made  a  number  of  interrogative  sen- 
tences. Write  an  answer  to  each.  These  answers  will 
be  declarative  sentences. 

II. 

Turn  the  following  declarative  sentences  into  inter- 
rogative sentences. 

1.  Our  society  meets  once  a  fortnight. 

2.  Wellington  defeated  Napoleon  at  Waterloo. 

3.  They  heard  the  din  of  the  battle. 

4.  Swift  wrote  "  Gulliver's  Travels." 

5.  Shakspere  lived  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

6.  Our  voyage  was  very  prosperous. 

7.  Nothing  dries  more  quickly  than  a  tear. 

8.  Sir  John  Franklin  perished  in  the  Arctic  regions. 

9.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  deals  in  furs. 

10.  John  Adams  was  the  second  President  of  the  United  States. 

11.  Victoria  is  Empress  of  India. 

12.  William  II.  is  the  German  Emperor. 

13.  Siberia  is  a  part  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

LEI. 

Compare  the  declarative  and  the  interrogative  sen- 
tences that  you  have  made  in  I  and  n. 

Do  you  observe  any  difference  in  the  order  of  words? 

With  what  words  do  many  questions  begin  ? 

See  if  you  can  frame  a  rough-and-ready  rule  for  inter- 
rogative sentences. 


INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCES.  27 

CHAPTER   XII. 

INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES.     II. 

62.  The  preceding  exercise  illustrates  some  of  the 
peculiarities  of  interrogative  sentences. 

63.  The  simple  subject  of  an  interrogative  sentence 
often  follows  the  simple,  predicate.     Thus,  ■ — 

G_Qes  Ccesar  to  the  capital  to-morrow  ? 
Know  you  this  man? 
Is  Thomas  your  brother  ? 

Change  each  of  these  sentences  to  the  declarative  form, 
and  the  difference  in  order  is  plain. 

64.  The  predicate  of  an  interrogative  sentence  is 
often  a  verb-phrase  with  do,  does,  or  did.     Thus,  - — 

Do  I  blame  the  man  ? 
Do  you  feel  better  ? 
Does  Charles  go  to  school  ? 
Did  they  find  your  knife? 

Here  the  predicates  are  the  verb-phrases  do  blame,  do 
feel,  does  go,  did  find.  The  subjects  (I,  you,  Charles, 
they)  come  between  the  two  parts  of  the  verb-phrases, 

65.  Interrogative  sentences  often  begin  with  who, 
whose,  whom,  which,  what.     Thus,  — 

Who  is  on  guard?  Which  of  you  is  ready? 

Whom  did  you  see  ?  What  troubles  you  ? 

These  words  are  pronouns,  for  they  point  out  or  desig- 
nate a  person  or  thing~(By=asking  a  question  about  it). 

When  thus  used  to  introduce  a  question,  who,  tvhose, 
whom,  which,  and  what  are  called  interrogative  pronouns. 


28  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 

I. 

Write  ten  interrogative  sentences  beginning  with  do, 
does,  or  did.  Use  as  subjects  some  of  the  nouns  in  the 
lists  below. 

Examples  :         Does  Henry  skate  well? 

Do  bananas  grow  in  Africa  ? 

Henry,  Washington,  Julia,  river,  lake,  mountain,  ship,  England, 
Mr.  Jackson,  Lowell,  bananas,  cocoanuts,  children,  whales,  lion, 
cotton,  breadfruit,  Kansas,  Henry  Clay. 

Write  an  answer  to  each  of  your  questions. 

ii. 

Write  ten  interrogative  sentences  beginning  with,  who, 
ivhose,  ivhom,  which,  or  what. 

Write  answers  to  your  questions. 

ill. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  by  designating  (1) 
the  complete  subject,  (2)  the  complete  predicate,  (3)  the 
simple  subject,  (4)  the  simple  predicate. 

1.  Is  wealth  thy  passion? 

2.  What  shall  I  say  in  excuse  for  this  long  letter? 

3.  Is  he  not  able  to  pay  the  money  ? 

4.  Urge  you  your  petitions  in  the  street? 

5.  Why  was  James  driven  from  the  throne  ? 

6.  Is  this  the  welcome  of  my  worthy  deeds? 

7.  Why  dost  thou  bend  thine  eyes  upon  the  earth? 

8.  Why  do  you  treat  Alfred  Burnham  so  defiantly? 

9.  Did  you  ever  read  anything  so  delightful? 

10.  Why  would  not  you  speak  sooner? 

11.  Does  this  garden  belong  to  the  governor? 


IMPERATIVE  SENTENCES.  29 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

IMPERATIVE   SENTENCES. 

66.  Each  of  the  groups  of  words  that  follow  expresses 
a  command  or  a  request :  — 

March  forward !  Drive  the  dog  out. 

Sharpen  my  pencil  for  me,  please. 

Examining  the  form  of  these  expressions,  we  observe 
certain  peculiarities  :  — 

(1)  There  is  a  verb  in  each :  march,  drive,  sharpen. 

(2)  No  subject  is  expressed. 

(3)  A  subject,  however,  is  certainly  in  the  speaker's 
mind,  —  namely,  the  person  to  whom  he  is  speaking  ; 
and  this  subject  may  be  expressed  at  will  by  prefixing 
to  the  verb  the  pronoun  you.     Thus,  — 

[You]    march  forward  !         [You]  drive  the  dog  out ! 
[You]  sharpen  my  pencil  for  me,  please. 

All  these  groups  of  words,  then,  are  sentences  of  a 
peculiar  kind,  having  a  predicate  expressed  and  a  sub- 
ject, you,  understood. 

(1)  They  are  directly  addressed  to  somebody. 

(2)  They  express  either  a  command  or  a  request,  the 
sole  difference  between  the  two  consisting  in  the  tone 
of  voice  in  which  the  sentence  is  uttered. 

Such  sentences  are  called  imperative  sentences. 

67.  An  Imperative  Sentence  expresses  a  command  or  a  request. 
The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  usually  omitted ;  when 

expressed,  it  is  either  thou  or  you  (ye). 


30  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Make  ten  sentences  expressing  command  or  entreaty. 
How  do  the   imperative   sentences  which  you  have 
made  differ  in  form  from  declarative  sentences? 

II. 
Make  ten  imperative  sentences  beginning  with  do  not. 
Observe  that  this  is  the  common  form  of  a  prohibition 
(or  negative  command). 

in. 
Analyze  the  following  imperative  sentences  thus  :  — 
(1)  mention  the  subject;  (2)  mention  the  complete  predi- 
cate ;  (3)  mention  the  simple  predicate. 

1.  Go  you  before  to  Gloucester  with  these  letters. 

2.  Follow  thou  the  flowing  river. 

3.  Go  you  into  the  other  street. 

4.  To-morrow  in  the  battle  think  on  me. 

5.  Do  not  lay  your  hand  on  your  sword. 

6.  Bring  forth  the  prisoners  instantly. 

7.  Lend  favorable  ears  to  our  request. 

8.  Call  thou  my  brother  hither. 

9.  Do  not  seek  for  trouble. 

10.  Spare  my  guiltless  wife  and  my  poor  children. 

11.  See  the  wild  waste  of  all-devouring  years. 

12.  Don't  measure  other  people's  corn  by  your  own  bushel. 

13.  Teach  not  thy  lips  such  scorn. 

14.  Give  my  regards  to  your  brother. 

15.  Don't  forget  my  message. 

16.  Remember  never  to  be  ashamed  of  doing  right. 

17.  Do  not  saw  the  air  too  much  with  your  hand. 

18.  Keep  a  firm  rein  upon  these  bursts  of  passion. 

19.  Do  not  spur  a  free  horse. 

20.  Do  not  stand  in  your  own  light. 


EXCLAMATORY   SENTENCES.  31 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

EXCLAMATORY   SENTENCES. 

68.  Any  sentence,  whatever  its  form,  may  be  spoken 
as  an  exclamation ;  that  is,  may  be  uttered  as  a  kind  of 
cry  expressing  surprise  'or  some  other  emotion.  Such 
sentences  are  called  exclamatory  sentences. 

Thus,  the  sentences 

He  comes ! 

What  do  you  mean  ? 

Go  home ! 

are  all  exclamatory. 

Yet  these  three  examples  are  sentences  of  different 
kinds:  the  first  is  declarative;  the  second,  interroga- 
tive ;  the  third,  imperative. 

In  the  following  sentences,  however,  we  have  excla- 
mations expressed  in  a  peculiar  form :  — 

What  a  noise  the  boy  makes ! 
What  beautiful  flowers  these  are  I 
How  fast  the  horse  runs ! 

These  sentences  are,  it  will  be  seen,  essentially  declara- 
tive, but  they  do  not  merely  state  a  fact ;  they  state  a 
fact  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation.  In  other  words, 
they  are  exclamatory  sentences. 

69.  Any  sentence  which  expresses  surprise,  grief,  appeal,  or 
any  strong  emotion  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation  or  cry  may  be 
called  an  Exclamatory  Sentence. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  followed  by  an  exclama- 
tion point  (!)  if  it  is  declarative  or  imperative. 


32  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  whether  each  of  the  following  sentences  is  declar- 
ative, interrogative,  or  imperative,  and  give  your  reasons. 

If  any  of  the  sentences  are  also  exclamatory,  mention 
that  fact. 

1.  Did  you  ever  hear  the  streams  talk  to  you  in  May,  when 
you  went  a-fishing  ? 

2.  The  white  pavilions  made  a  show, 
Like  remnants  of  the  winter  snow. 

3.  But  hark  !  what  means  yon  faint  halloo  ? 

4.  Things  are  stagnant  enough  in  town. 

5.  But  what 's  the  use  of  delaying? 

6.  The  Moors  from  forth  the  greenwood  came  riding  one  by 
one. 

7.  I  was  just  planning  a  whole  week's  adventure  for  you. 

8.  At  the  Peckham  end  there  were  a  dozen  handsome  trees, 
and  under  them  a  piece  of  artificial  water  where  boys  were  sail- 
ing toy  boats,  and  a  poodle  was  swimming. 

9.  Look  at  the  splendid  prize  that  was  to  recompense  our 
labor. 

10.  Don't  think  that  my  temper  is  hot. 

11.  The  natives  came  by  degrees  to  be  less  apprehensive  of  any 
danger  from  me. 

12.  Soldier,  rest !  thy  warfare  o'er, 

Sleep  the  sleep  that  knows  not  breaking. 

13.  How  easily  you  seem  to  get  interested  in  new  people ! 

14.  How  little  I  thought  what  the  quarrel  would  lead  to  I 

15.  How  have  you  been  employing  your  time? 

16.  O,  cease  your  sports,  Earl  Percy  said, 
And  take  your  bows  with  speed. 

17.  He  had  been  in  business  in  the  West  End. 

18.  Abandon  this  mad  enterprise. 

19.  Forgive  my  hasty  words. 

20.  What  black  despair,  what  horror,  fills  his  heart  I 


VOCA  TIVE.  33 

CHAPTER   XV. 

VOCATIVE.* 

70.  Examine  the  following  sentence :  — 

Thomas,  you  are  a  troublesome  fellow. 

In  this  sentence  the  noun  Thomas  is  used  as  a  call  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  person  addressed.  It  is  not 
the  subject  of  the  sentence.  Indeed,  it  has  no  connec- 
tion of  any  hind  with  the  veil). 

Similarly,  in  each  of  the  sentences  in  §  72,  the  noun 
printed  in  italics  is  used  merely  to  designate  the  person 
to  whom  we  are  speaking.  It  is  quite  independent  of 
any  verb. 

Nouns  thus  used  in  direct  address  are  said  to  be  in  the 
vocative  (that  is,  the  "calling")  construction. 

71.  A  noun  used  for  the  purpose  of  addressing  a  person 
directly,  and  not  connected  with  any  verb,  is  called  a  Vocative. 

A  vocative  is  also  called  a  vocative  nominative  or  a  nominative  of 
direct  address. 

72.  The  vocative  is  common  in  sentences  of  all  kinds, 
—  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclama- 
tory.    Thus,  — 

John,  your  father  is  calling.     [Declarative.] 
John,  do  you  own  a  horse?     [Interrogative.] 
John,  open  the  door.      [Imperative.] 
What  a  fellcw  you  are,  John  .'     [Exclamatory.] 

*  The  vocative  is  treated  at  this  point  because  it  is  common  in  impera- 
tive .sentences  and  is  often  mistaken  by  beginners  for  the  subject  of  an 
imperative. 


34  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Omit  the  vocative  John,  and  the  meaning  of  these 
sentences  is  not  changed.  The  vocative,  then,  stands 
by  itself:  that  is,  it  is  independent  of  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 

73.  Since  imperative  sentences  are  always  directly 
addressed  to  some  one,  vocatives  are  very  common  in 
such  sentences.     Thus,  — 

Look  aloft,  Tom. 

Answer  me,  Mary,  immediately. 

John,  lend  me  your  rifle. 

Note  that  the  subject  of  each  of  these  sentences  is  the 
unexpressed  pronoun  you  (§  66),  and  not  the  vocative 
{Tom,  Mary,  John). 

74.  In  analyzing  a  sentence  containing  a  vocative,  the 
vocative  is  mentioned  by  itself  and  is  not  regarded  as 
a  part  of  either  the  complete  subject  or  the  complete 
predicate. 

EXERCISES. 


Fill  the  blanks  with  vocatives. 

Observe  that  each  sentence  is  complete  already,  and 
that  therefore  the  vocatives  are  not  necessary  to  the 
thought. 

1.  We  shall  miss  you  very  much, . 

2.  Come  hither, ,  and  sit  upon  my  knee. 

3.  What  is  your  name, ? 

4.    ,  can  you  tell  me  the  road  to  Denver? 

5.    ,  spare  that  tree. 

6.  Don't  disappoint  me,  -    — .     I  trust  you  absolutely. 


VOCATIVE.  35 

7.  Jog  on, ,  and  we  shall  soon  reach  the  stable. 

8.  Run, !     The  savages  are  after  us  ! 

9.  Swim, ,  for  your  life.     There  's  a  shark  chasing  you  ! 

10.  Jump, !     It 's  our  last  chance  ! 

II. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  mention  the  sub- 
ject and  the  predicate. 

Mention  also  any  vocative  nouns  which  the  sentences 
contain. 

1.  O  learned  sir, 

You  and  your  learning  I  revere. 

2.  The  good  old  man 

Means  no  offence,  sweet  lady  ! 

3.  Good-by!     Drive  on,  coachman. 

4.  Why,  Sir  John,  my  face  does  you  no  harm. 

5.  Good  cousin,  give  me  audience  for  a  while. 

6.  Yours  is  the  prize,  victorious  prince. 

7.  "  Wake,  Allan-bane,"  aloud  she  cried 
To  the  old  minstrel  by  her  side. 

8.  Bid  adieu,  my  sad  heart,  bid  adieu  to  thy  peace. 

9.  My  dear  little  cousin,  what  can  be  the  matter  ? 

10.  Come,  Evening,  once  again,  season  of  peace  ! 

11.  Plain  truth,  dear  Murray,  needs  no  flowers  of  speech. 

12.  Permit  me  now,  Sir  William,  to  address  myself  personally 
to  you. 

13.  Go,  my  dread  lord,  to  your  great-grandsire's  tomb. 

14.  Why  do  you  stay  so  long,  my  lords  of  France  ? 

15.  My  pretty  cousins,  you  mistake  me  much. 

16.  Come  on,  Lord  Hastings.     Will  you  go  with  me  ? 

17.  O  Romeo,  Romeo,  brave  Mercutio  's  dead. 

18.  I  will  avenge  this  insult,  noble  queen. 

19.  O  friend,  I  seek  a  harborage  for  the  night. 

20.  My  lord,  I  saw  three  bandits  by  the  rock. 

21.  Father  !    thy  days  have  passed  in  peace. 


36  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

III. 

Tell  whether  each  of  the  following  sentences  is 
declarative,  interrogative,  or  imperative. 

Divide  each  into  the  complete  subject  and  the  com- 
plete predicate.  Mention  the  simple  subject  and  the 
simple  predicate. 

Mention  any  vocatives  that  you  find. 

1.  I  had  a  violent  fit  of  the  nightmare. 

2.  It  was  at  the  time  of  the  annual  fair. 

3.  My  uncle  was  an  old  traveller. 

4.  The  young  lady  closed  the  casement  with  a  sigh. 

5.  The  supper  table  was  at  length  laid. 

6.  Hoist  out  the  boat. 

7.  Are  you  from  the  farm? 

8.  She  broke  into  a  little  scornful  laugh. 

9.  Bring  forth  the  horse. 

10.  When  can  their  glory  fade? 

11.  Shut,  shut  the  door,  good  John  ! 

12.  Do  you  mark  that,  my  lord  ? 

13.  Why  sigh  you  so  profoundly? 

14.  Within  the  mind  strong  fancies  work. 

15.  The  sun  peeps  gay  at  dawn  of  day. 

16.  The  noble  stag  was  pausing  now 
Upon  the  mountain's  southern  brow. 

17.  Then  through  the  dell  his  horn  resounds. 

18.  Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 
The  Morning  from  her  mantle  gray. 

19.  Fire  flashed  from  out  the  old  Moor's  eyes. 

20.  The  garlands  wither  on  their  brow. 

IV. 
Change  the  declarative  sentences  in  ill,  above,  into 
interrogative  sentences.     What  changes  do  you  make  in 
the  form  of  each  sentence  ? 


ADJECTIVES.  37 

'QBl 
CHAPTER    XVI. 

ADJECTIVES. 

75.  Examine  the  sentence  that  follows :  — 

The  golden  butterfly  |  glistened  through  the  shadowy  apartment. 

In  this  sentence  neither  of  the  two  nouns,  butterfly 
and  apartment,  stands  by  itself.  To  the  noun  butterfly 
is  attached  the  word  golden,  describing  the  butterfly;  to 
the  noun  apartment  is  attached  the  word  shadowy, 
describing  the  apartment. 

Neither  golden  nor  shadowy,  it  Avill  be  observed,  is  a 
noun.  On  the  contrary,  their  task  in  the  sentence  is  to 
describe  or  define  the  nouns  butterfly  and  apartment ;  and 
this  they  do  by  attributing  some  quality  to  them.  Such 
words  are  called  adjectives. 

76.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  which  limits  or  describes  a  Sub- 
stantive, usually  by  attributing  some  quality. 

77.  An  Adjective  is  said  to  belong  to  the  Substantive  which 
it  limits  or  describes.  "When  closely  attached  to  the  Substan- 
tive it  is  called  an  Attributive  Adjective. 

Thus,  in  §  75,  the  adjective  golden  belongs  to  the 
noun  butterfly,  and  shadowy  belongs  to  apartment. 

78.  How  adjectives  limit  nouns  may  be  seen  by  writing 
down  (1)  a  noun  by  itself,  (2)  a  noun  with  one  adjec- 
tive, (3)  a  noun  with  two  adjectives,  (4)  a  noun  with 
three  adjectives.     Thus,  — 

(1)  apple  ; 

(2)  red  apple  ; 

(3)  large,  red  apple; 

(4)  large,  red,  mellow  apple. 


38  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

The  noun  apple  in  (1)  may  refer  to  any  apple  in  the 
world,  red  or  green  or  yellow,  large  or  small,  mellow 
or  hard. 

In  (2)  the  adjective  red  limits  the  noun  to  apples  of 
that  particular  color. 

In  (3)  small  apples  are  ruled  out  by  the  adjective 
large. 

In  (4)  the  adjective  mellow  makes  still  more  limited 
the  kinds  of  apples  to  which  the  noun  can  apply. 
Every  additional  adjective,  then,  narrows  or  limits  the 
meaning  of  the  noun. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  all  the  adjectives 
and  mention  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  each  belongs. 

1.  The  sun  is  warm,  the  sky  is  clear. 

2.  Hope  must  have  green  bowers  and  blue  skies. 

3.  His  axe  is  keen,  his  arm  is  strong. 

4.  La  Fleur  instantly  pulled  out  a  little  dirty  pocket-book, 
crammed  full  of  small  letters. 

5.  His  white  hair  floats  like  a  snowdrift  around  his  face. 

6.  A  sorrowful  multitude  followed  them  to  the  shore. 

7.  My  fugitive  years  are  all  hasting  away. 

8.  The  sails  of  this  vessel  are  black. 

9.  The  old  officer  was  reading  a  small  pamphlet. 

10.  He  was  almost  frantic  with  grief. 

11.  We  are  weak  and  miserable. 

12.  A  more  striking  picture  there  could  not  be  imagined  than 
the  beautiful  English  face  of  the  girl,  and  its  exquisite  bloom, 
together  with  her  erect  and  independent  attitude,  contrasted  with 
the  sallow  and  bilious  skin  of  the  Malay,  veneered  with  mahogany 
tints  by  climate  and  marine  air,  his  small,  fierce,  restless  eyes, 
thin  lips,  slavish  gestures  and  adorations. 


ADJECTIVES.  39 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

CLASSES    OF   ADJECTIVES. 

79.  Most  adjectives  are,  like  those  which  we  have 
so  far  studied,  descriptive  words. 

Others,  however,  serve  merely  to  point  out  or  designate 
objects  in  some  way  without  actually  describing  them. 
You  cannot  swim  to  yonder  rock. 
Mr.  Ashe  lives  in  the  next  house. 
The  right-hand  road  leads  to  London. 
The  under  side  of  the  cake  is  burned. 
That  ice  is  dangerous. 
These  grapes  are  very  sour. 
This  person  was  named  Jeremy. 
Some  dreams  are  like  reality. 
Each  man  took  a  pear.' 
Every  rat  abandoned  the  sinking  ship. 
Many  hands  make  light  work. 
Few  wars  are  really  unavoidable. 
All  men  shrink  from  suffering. 
No  camels  were  visible. 
Innumerable  mosquitoes  buzzed  about  us. 

These  adjectives,  as  the  examples  show  us,  usually 
indicate  either  place  or  number. 

Adjectives  that  indicate  number  exactly  (as,  one, 
two,  twenty-five,  forty-six)  are  called  numeral  adjectives. 
(See  p.  200.) 

80.  An  adjective  formed  from  a  proper  noun  is  called 
a  proper  adjective  and  begins  with  a  capital  letter:  as, 
Roman,  American,  English. 

81.  Tell  which  of  the'  adjectives  in  §  79  are  descrip- 
tive, which  indicate  place,  and  which  indicate  number. 


40  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  appropriate  adjectives. 

1.  Spring  is  cheery,  but  winter  is . 

2.  A  fairy    comes    at    night.     Her  eyes  are  — — ,  her 

hair  is . 

3.  The castle  had  never  held  half  so  many knights 

beneath  its  roof. 

4.  Holly  is  — — -  in  the  winter. 

5.  No fire  blazed  on  the  hearth. 

6.  Wellington  was  an general. 

7.  I  wish  you  a New  Year. 

8.  Down  he  sank  in  the waves. 

9.  The  clothes  and  food  of  the  children  are and 

10.  His  eyes  are  with  weeping. 

11.  "  'T  was  a victory,"  said  the man. 

12. snow  lay  on  the  ground. 

13.  No  footstep  marked  the gravel. 

14.  Miss  Bell  seemed  very . 

15.  John  looks  as as  a  judge. 

II. 

Make  twenty  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  these 
;idjectives  followed  by  a  noun  :  — 

Proud,  tall,  rusty,  ruinous,  anxious,  careless,  faithful,  angry, 
blue-eyed,  plentiful,  purple,  flowery,  outrageous,  accurate,  fault- 
finding, swift,  patriotic,  athletic,  torrid,  American. 

III. 
Mention  a  number  of  adjectives  that  might  be  used 
in  describing  each  of  the  following  objects :  — 

Iron,  lead,  robin,  parrot,  eagle,  sparrow,  bicycle,  horse,  oxen, 
cornfield,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  winter,  butterfly,  spider,  car- 
penter, physician,  sugar,  marble. 


ARTICLE  ii.  41 

IV. 

Use  in  a  sentence  each  of  the  nouns  in  the  list  below. 
With  each  noun  use  an  adjective.      Thus,  — 

Noun  :  dog.     Adjective  :  shaggy. 
Sentence :  That  shaggy  dog  of  John's  needs  clipping. 
Cat,   engineer,    game,    hall,   orange,    lemon,   sailor,   architect, 
president,  Washington,  scholar,  mechanic,  board,  saw,  book,  mer- 
chant, battle,  charge,  artillery,  grove,  prairie,  mountain,  lake. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE   TWO   ARTICLES. 

82.  Two  peculiar  adjectives,  a  (or  an)  and  the  are  called 
Articles.* 

83.  The  general  difference  between  the  two  articles 
a  and  the  appears  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

The  horseman  galloped  up.         A  horseman  galloped  up. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  article  the,  belonging  to 
horseman,  shows  that  some  particular  horseman  is  meant, 
in  other  words,  it  definitely  points  out  an  individual 
person  as  distinguished  from  a  whole  class  of  persons. 
Hence  the  is  called  the  definite  article. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  article  a,  belonging  to 
horseman,  does  not  definitely  point  out  the  horseman  as 
an  individual  ;  it  simply  designates  him,  indefinitely,  as 
belonging  to  a  class  of  persons,  —  horsemen.  Hence  a 
(or  an)  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 

*  The  articles  are  sometimes  rated  as  a  distinct  class  among  the  parts 
of  speech;  but  it  is  hotter  to  include  them  among  adjectives,  in  accordance 
with  their  origin,  nature,  and  use. 


42  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

84.  The  Definite  Article  the  points  out  one  or  more  individual 
persons  or  things  as  in  some  way  distinct  from  others  of  the 
same  general  class  or  kind. 

Find  the  definite  articles  in  the  following  passages,  and 
observe  that  they  each  designate  a  particular  object :  — 

1.  You  should  have  seen  the  wedding. 

2.  The  day  of  our  vengeance  was  come. 

3.  In  the  year  fifty-nine  came  the  Britons. 

4.  As  they  entered  the  yard  the  flames  were  rushing  out  of 
the  chimney. 

5.  The  old  man  looked  ■wistfully  across  the  table,  the  muscles 
about  his  mouth  quivering  as  he  ended. 

6.  Harry  shaded  his  eyes  with  his  hand  for  a  minute,  as  he 
stood  outside  the  cottage  drinking  in  the  fresh,  pure  air,  laden 
with  the  scent  of  the  honeysuckle  which  he  had  trained  over  the 
porch,  and  listening  to  the  chorus  of  linnets  and  finches  from 
the  copse  at  the  back  of  the  house. 

85.  The  Indefinite  Article  a  (or  an)  designates  a  person  or 
thing  as  merely  one  of  a  general  class  or  kind,  making  no  dis- 
tinction between  individuals. 

The  article  a  is  simply  a  fragment  of  an  (pronounced  ahn),  the 
old  form  of  the  modern  English  numeral  one.  An  preserves  the 
old  -n,  which  is  lost  in  a. 

In  its  meaning  the  indefinite  article  may  still  be  recognized  as 
a  very  weak  "  one."  Compare  the  indefinite  use  of  one  in  such 
phrases  as  "  One  John  Smith  is  suspected  of  this  robbery,"  that 
is,  "somebody,  nobody  knoivs  who,  called  John  Smith,"  "a  John 
Smith,"  "  a  certain  John  Smith." 

86.  An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  silent 
h;  a  before  other  words.     Thus,  — 

an  inkstand;  a  box; 

an  elephant ;  a  cataract ; 

an  hour  ;  a  zebra. 


ARTICLES.  43 

87.    Special  Rules  for  a  or  an. 

1.  Before  words  beginning  with  the  sound  of  y  or  w, 
a,  not  an,  is  used.     Thus,  — 

a  unison  ;  a  European  ; 

a  unicorn  ;  a  eucalyptus  tree  ; 

a  universal  genius  ;  such  a  one. 

Under  this  head  are  included  all  words  beginning  with  eu  and  many 
beginning  with  u.  These  form  no  exception  to  the  general  rule  in  §  86, 
for  u  and  eu,  when  pronounced  like  the  pronoun  you,  do  not  express  a 
vowel  sound. 

2.  Before  words  beginning  with  h  and  not  accented 
on  the  first  syllable,  an  is  often  used.     Thus,  we  say 

a  his'tory ;  but,  an  historical  novel. 

Here  again  we  have  no  real  exception  to  the  rule  in  §  86 ;  for  in  the  words 
in  question,  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  first  syllable,  the  h  is  very  weak 
in  pronunciation  and  sometimes  entirely  disappears,  so  that  the  word 
practically  begins  with  a  vowel. 


EXERCISES. 
I. 

Find  the  indefinite  articles  in  the  following  passages, 
and  observe  whether  the  form  is  a  or  an. 

1.  Whenever  there  was  sickness  in  the  place,  she  was  an 
untiring  nurse. 

2.  We  are  going  to  have  a  great  archery  party  next  month, 
and  you  shall  have  an  invitation. 

3.  But  man  of  all  ages  is  a  selfish  animal,  and  unreasonable 
in  his  selfishness. 

4.  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods. 

5.  At  length  I  met  a  reverend  good  old  man. 

6.  He  was  lying  on  a  crimson  velvet  sofa,  reading  a  French 
novel.  It  was  a  very  little  book.  He  is  a  very  little  man..  In 
that  enormous  hall  he  looked  like  a  mere  speck. 


44  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


II. 

In  the  following  sentences  supply  an  article,  either 
definite  or  indefinite. 

In  case  it  is  possible  to  supply  either  the  definite  or 
the  indefinite  article,  tell  what  difference  of  meaning 
comes  from  using  one  rather  than  the  other. 

1.  The  schoolhouse  was low  building  rudely  constructed 

of  logs  ;  windows  were  partly  glazed,  and  partly  patched  with 

leaves  of  old  copy-books. 

2.  He  was  always  ready  for  either fight  or frolic. 

3.  It  was,  as  I  have  said, fine  autumnal  day.     ■  sky 

was  clear  and  serene. 

4.  sloop  was  loitering  in distance,  dropping  slowly 

down  with tide,  her  sail  hanging  uselessly  against mast. 

5.  musician  was old  gray-headed  negro. 

6.  On  one  side  of  church  extends  a  wide  woody  dell, 

along  which  raves large  brook. 

III. 
In  the  following  passage,  point  out  all  the  definite 
and  all  the  indefinite   articles   and  tell  to  what  noun 
each  belongs. 

1.  An  acquaintance,  a  friend  as  he  called  himself,  entered. 

2.  The  town  was  in  a  hubbub. 

3.  The  men  were  quiet  and  sober. 

4.  You  see  this  man  about  whom  so  great  an  uproar  hath 
been  made  in  this  town. 

5.  I  disliked  carrying  a  musket. 

6.  I  sat  down  on  one  of  the  benches,  at  the  other  end  of  which 
was  seated  a  man  in  very  shabby  clothes. 

7.  The  ploughman  whistles. 

8.  The  mower  whets  his  scythe. 

9.  Young  and  old  come  forth  to  play 
On  a  sunshine  holiday. 


ADVERBS.  45 

CHAPTER    XIX. 

ADVERBS. 

88.    Examine  the  following  sentence  :  — 
The  statesman  advised  the  king  wisely. 

In  this  sentence  the  word  wisely  is  different,  both  in 
its  form  and  its  use,  from  any  part  of  speech  which  we 
have  so  far  studied. 

It  bears  some  resemblance  to  an  adjective.  It  is  not 
an  adjective,  however,  for  it  does  not  describe  or  limit 
either  of  the  two  nouns  in  the  sentence,  statesman  or 
king. 

Indeed,  its  very  form  (ivisely)  shows  that  it  is  not  an 
adjective.  "  The  wisely  statesman  "  is  an  impossible- 
form  of  speech.      Wise  is  the  adjective  form,  not  wisely. 

Wisely,  then,  has  no  relations  with  the  nouns  in  the 
sentence.  On  the  other  hand,  it  clearly  is  connected 
with  the  verb,  —  advised;  for  it  tells  how  or  in  what  manner 
the  statesman  advised  the  kiner. 

Wisely,  then,  modifies  (that  is,  affects  the  meaning  of) 
the  verb  advised. 

For  ivisely  we  may  substitute  foolishly,  rashly, 
treacherously,  quickly,  or  respectfully,  and  each  of  these 
words  would  change  the  meaning  of  advised. 

'  wisely. 

The  statesman  advised  the  king  -i  •*  •*' . 

rashly. 

*  treacherously. 

Such  words  are  called  adverbs,  because  of  their  fre- 
quent association  with  verbs. 


46  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Pick   out  the   adverbs  and  tell  what  verb  or  verb- 
phrase  each  modifies. 

1.  Carroll  waved  his  whip  triumphantly  in  the  air. 

2.  This  contemptuous  speech  cruelly  shocked  Cecilia. 

3.  Spring  came  upon  us  suddenly. 

4.  The  king  gained  ground  everywhere. 

5.  Every  night  in  dreams  they  groaned  aloud. 

6.  Northward  he  turneth  through  a  little  door. 

7.  I  dimly  discerned  a  wall  before  me. 

8.  Miss    Sharp    had    demurely    entered    the    carriage    some 
minutes  before. 

9.  Punctuality  at  meals  was  rigidly  enforced  at  Gateshead  Hall. 

10.  But  here  the  doctors  eagerly  dispute. 

11.  The  guardsman  defended  himself  bravely. 

12.  Swiftly,  swiftly  flew  the  ship, 

Yet  she  sailed  softly  too  : 
Sweetly,  sweetly  blew  the  breeze  — 
On  me  alone  it  blew. 

13.  Kent  had  been  looking  at  me  steadily  for  some  time. 

14.  By  this  storm  our  ship  was  greatly  damaged. 

II. 

Change  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences by  substituting  a  different  adverb. 

1.  Stevens  laughed  boisterously. 

2.  Merrily  sang  the  birds  in  the  wood. 

3.  You  have  acted  unjustly  toward  your  brother. 

4.  The  ship  settled  in  the  water  gradually. 

5.  Fiercely  the  chieftain  made  reply. 

6.  We  rowed  slowly  up  the  stream. 

7.  Mr.  Fleetwood  entered  the  room  noisily. 

8.  They  waited  patiently  for  better  times. 


ADVERBS.  47 

CHAPTER   XX. 

ADVERBS   MODIFYING   ADJECTIVES. 

89.  An  Adverb  may  modify  the  meaning  of  an  Adjective. 
Thus,  in  the  sentence 

The  man  was  foolishly  confident, 

the  adverb  foolishly  modifies  the  adjective  confident  by 
indicating  that  the  man  was  confident  in  a  foolish  way. 
As  before,  we  could  substitute  for  foolishly  other 
adverbs,  such  as  rashly,  bravely,  wisely,  moderately,  and 
every  such  substitution  would  affect  or  modify  the 
meaning  of  confident  (see  p.  45). 


The  man  was   -< 


foolishly  " 
rashly 
bravely 
»  wisely 


>  confident. 


EXERCISE. 

Pick  out  the  adverbs  that  modify  adjectives. 

1.  Her  language  is  singularly  agreeable  to  me. 

2.  Mr.  Sedley's  eyes  twinkled    in    a    manner    indescribably 
roguish. 

*~*3.  The  river  walk  is  uncommonly  pretty. 

4.  She  had  been  going  on  a  bitterly  cold  winter  night  to  visit 
some  one  at  Stamford  Hill. 

^  5.  Mrs.  Harrel  was  extremely  uneasy. 

6.  The  meeting  was  very  painful  to  them  both. 

7.  Kate  had  been  unreasonably  angry  with  Heatherleigh. 

8.  Be  particularly  careful  not  to  stumble. 
-*-  9.  The  poor  fellow  was  pitifully  weak. 


48  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XXL 

ADVERBS  MODIFYING  ADVERBS. 

90.  An  Adverb  may  modify  the  meaning  of  another  Adverb. 
Thus,  in 

The  governor  predicted  his  own  election  very  confidently, 

(1)  confidently  is  an  adverb  modifying  the  verb  predicted, 
and  (2)  very  is  an  adverb  modifying  confidently. 

The  pupil  recited  very  badly. 
The  governor  spoke  rather  rapidly. 
Charles  cannot  dance  so  gracefully  as  John. 

91.  In  accordance  with  what  we  have  learned  from 
pages  45-48,  we  may  now  define  the  adverb:  — 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  Verb, 
an  Adjective,  or  another  Adverb. 


EXERCISE. 

Pick  out  the  adverbs  that  modify  other  adverbs. 

1.  She  told  her  distress  quite  frankly. 

2.  Cecilia  then  very  gravely  began  an  attempt  to  undeceive  her. 

3.  This  service  she  somewhat  reluctantly  accepted. 

4.  He  fixed  his  eyes  on  me  very  steadily. 

5.  We  strolled  along  rather  carelessly  towards  Hampstead. 

6.  Do  not  speak  so  indistinctly. 

7.  The  red  horse  trots  uncommonly  fast. 

8.  The  commander  rebuked  his  boldness  half  seriously,  half 
jestingly. 

9.  The  cotton  must  be  picked  pretty  soon. 

10.    Why  did  King  Lear's  daughters  treat  him  so  unkindly  ? 


ADVERBS.  49 

CHAPTER    XXII. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  ADVERBS. 

92.  Adverbs  may  be  divided  according  to  their  sense 
into  four  classes  :  (1)  adverbs  of  manner;  (2)  adverbs  of 
time;   (3)  adverbs  of  place;   (4)  adverbs  of  degree. 

93.  Adverbs  of  Manner  answer  the  question  "How?"  "In 
what  way?  " 

They  are  very  numerous,  and  most  of  them  end  in  -ly. 
The  starving  man  ate  greedily. 
The  wayfarer  plodded  wearily  along. 
Merrily  sang  the  boatmen. 
The  queen  was  foolishly  suspicious. 
The  gift  was  splendidly  generous.    ' 
The  nine  plays  unexpectedly  well. 

Several  adverbs  of  manner  have  no  ending  -ly  and 
are  identical  in  form  with  adjectives  of  like  meaning. 

The  farmer  always  works  hard. 
How  fast  the  time  flies  ! 

Adverbs  of  manner  usually  modify  either  verbs  or 
adjectives  ;  they  rarely  modify  adverbs. 

See  how  many  of  the  adverbs  on  page  46  are  adverbs 
of  manner,  and  tell  what  they  modify. 

94.  Adverbs  of  Time  answer  the  question  "When?" 
Examples  :  now,  then,  soon,  formerly,  to-day,  to-morrow,  by- 

and-by. 

Adverbs  of  time  usually  modify  verbs.     Thus,  — 

James  lives  in  San  Francisco  now. 
Then  the  sailor  leaped  into  the  sea. 
I  shall  return  to-morrow. 


50  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

95.  Adverbs  of  Place  answer  the  question  "Where?" 

Examples  :  here,  there,  yonder,  far,  near,  aloft,  astern,  for- 
ward, backward. 

Adverbs  of  place  usually  modify  verbs.     Thus,  — 

There  stands  the  Capitol. 
I  shall  wait  for  him  here. 
The  tired  swimmer  fell  far  astern. 

96.  Adverbs  of  Degree  answer  the  question  "To  what  degree 
or  extent?  " 

Examples  :  so,  very,  much,  little,  exceedingly,  hardly,  barely, 
not  (the  negative  adverb). 

Adverbs  of  degree  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
adverbs.  They  are  the  only  class  of  adverbs  that  are 
much  .used  to  modify  other  adverbs. 

The  reply  pleased  the  king  very  much. 

Here  much  modifies  the  verb  pleased,  indicating  the  degree  or 
extent  to  which  the  king  was  pleased. 

The  workman  was  little  content  with  his  lot. 
Here  little  modifies  the  adjective  content. 

I  never  saw  him  run  so  rapidly. 
Here  so  modifies  the  adverb  rapidly. 

97.  The  four  classes  of  adverbs  are  not  separated  by 
hard  and  fast  lines.  The  same  adverb  may  be  used  in 
different  senses  and  thus  belong  to  different  classes. 
Sometimes,  too,  there  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  classification  of  an  adverb  in  a  gdven  sentence. 
The  whole  matter  is  simply  a  question  of  the  thought 
expressed. 


ADVERBS.  51 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Fill  each  blank  with  an  adverb  of  degree  and  tell  how 
it  modifies  the  adjective  or  the  adverb  that  follows. 

1.  The  wind  blew hard. 

2.  The  air  bites  shrewdly ;  it  is cold. 

3.  I  was  in  the  utmost  astonishment,  and  roared loud 

that  they  all  ran  back  in  fright. 

4.  I  bowed respectfully  to  the  governor. 

5.  The  peacock's  voice  is  not beautiful  as  his  pluznage. 

6.  We  jogged  homeward  merrily . 

7.  Tom  was angry  to  measure  his  words. 

8.  The  load  was too  heavy  for  the  horse  to  draw . 

9.  "  My  lesson  is hard.     Is  yours  ?  "     "  No,  not  very ; 

but  still  it  is ■  difficult." 

10.  The  physician  was  rather  surprised    to  find   his   patient 
lively. 

11.  This  has  been  an  dry  season. 

II. 

Very  many  adverbs  end  in  -ly.     These  are  usually 
derived  from  adjectives.     Thus,  — 


Adjectives 

Adverbs 

fail- 

fairly 

bold 

boldly 

cordial 

cordially 

outrageous 

oirtrageously 

Form  such  adverbs  from  the  adjectives  in  the  follow- 
ing list.     Use  each  adverb  in  a  sentence. 

Fine,  courageous,  brave,  splendid,  eager,  plain,  doubtful,  con- 
fusing, remarkable,  heedless,  careful,  polite,  rude,  civil,  violent, 
mild,  meek,  gentle,  smooth,  soft,  boisterous. 


52  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


III. 


In  the  sentences  which  you  have  made  in  n,  tell 
whether  the  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb. 

IV. 

Use  each  of  the  following  verbs  and  verb-phrases 
with  several  different  adverbs,  and  see  how  the  meaning 
varies.     Let  each  of  your  examples  be  a  sentence. 

Sings,  runs,  flies,  talks,  walks,  works,  acted,  spent,  played, 
rushes,  has  confessed,  were  marching,  are  writing,  gazed,  have 
examined,  will  study,  devoured,  shall  watch,  may  hurt,  can  ride, 
has  injured,  will  attack. 

V. 

Read  the  sentences  which  you  have  made  in  iv, 
omitting  all  the  adverbs.  Observe  how  this  changes 
the  meaning;. 

VI. 

Pick  out  all  the  adverbs  on  page  46.  Tell  whether 
they  are  adverbs  of  time,  place,  manner,  or  degree, 
and  indicate  what  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  each 
modifies. 

Note.  —  In  determining  whether  an  adverh  indicates  manner,  time, 
place,  or  degree,  the  student  will  do  well  to  test  the  matter  hy  asking  him- 
self whether  the  word  answers  the  question  "  how  ?  "  "  when  ?"  "  where  ?  " 
or  "  to  what  extent?  " 

VII. 

For  each  adverb  in  the  sentences  on  page  46  substitute 
some  other  adverb. 

Observe  what  effect  this  change  has  on  the  meaning 
of  each  sentence. 


ANALYSIS:   MODIFIERS.  53 

CHAPTER    XXIII. 

ANALYSIS.  —MODIFIERS. 

98.  You  have  already  learned  to  take  the  first  steps 
in  the  analysis  of  a  sentence.  You  know  how  to  divide  it 
into  the  complete  subject  and  the  complete  predicate,  and  to 
designate  the  simple  subject  (noun  or  pronoun)  and  the 
simple  predicate  (verb  or  verb-phrase).     Thus,  — 

The  honest  farmer  |  worked  diligently. 

Here  the  complete  subject  is  the  honest  farmer ;  the 
complete  predicate  is  worked  diligently.  The  simple  sub- 
ject is  the  noun  farmer;  the  simple  predicate  is  the 
verb  worked. 

99.  We  may  now  take  another  step  in  analysis  and 
study  some  words  which  change  or  modify  the  meaning  of 
the  simple  subject  and  the  simple  predicate. 

100.  In  the  sentence  before  us  the  subject  farmer  has 
attached  to  it  the  adjective  honest,  and  the  predicate 
worked  has  attached  to  it  the  adverb  diligently. 

Honest  changes  or  modifies  the  meaning  of  farmer  by 
describing  the  farmer's  character.  Diligently  modifies 
worked  by  telling  how  or  in  what  manner  the  farmer 
worked. 

Hence  honest  is  called  a  modifier  of  the  subject,  and  dili- 
gently is  called  a  modifier  of  the  predicate. 

101.  A  word  or  group  of  words  attached  to  the  Subject  or  the 
Predicate  of  a  sentence  to  modify  its  meaning  is  called  a  Modifier 
of  the  Subject  or  the  Predicate. 

An  Adjective  is  often  used  as  a  Modifier  of  the  Subject. 
An  Adverb  is  often  used  as  a  Modifier  of  the  Predicate. 


54  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Analyze  the  sentences  below,  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  Divide  each  sentence  into  the  complete  subject 
and  the  complete  predicate.  (2)  Point  out  the  simple 
subject  and  the  simple  predicate.  (3)  Mention  any 
adjectives  that  modify  the  subject.  (4)  Mention  any 
adverbs  that  modify  the  predicate. 


A. 


The  large  room  was  quickly  filled. 
"—"•S.  A  great  wood  fire  blazed  cheerfully. 

3.  Our  dusty  battalions  marched  onward. 
^^4.  The  heavy  gates  were  shut  instantly. 

5.  A  magnificent  snow-fed  river  poured  ceaselessly  through 
the  glen. 

6.  Back  darted  Spurius  Lartius. 

T.  A  meagre  little  man  was" standing  near. 

8.  This  terrible  winter_dragged  slowly  along. 
—f-3-  The  cattle  wre  feeding  quietly. 

10.  Instantly  a  dire  hubbub  arose. 

11.  The  red  sun  sank  slowly  behind  th^Jiills. 

— J.2.  Many  strange  stories  •were  told\>f  this  adventure. 

II. 

Expand  the  following  short  sentences   by  inserting 
modifiers  of  the  subject  and  of  the  predicate. 


Nil. 

Men  work. 

8. 

Corn  grew. 

2. 

Pupils  studied. 

9. 

Fire  spread. 

3. 

The  wind  howls. 

10. 

Messenger  rode. 

4. 

Women  were  weeping. 

11. 

Building  fell. 

5. 

Grapes  hung. 

12. 

Child  cried. 

6. 

Enemy  resisted. 

13. 

Dog  swam. 

7. 

Crows  were  cawing. 

14. 

Tiger  sprang. 

PREPOSITIONS.  55 

CHAPTER    XXIV. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

102.  Among  the  words  which  do  not  themselves  call 
up  a  distinct  picture  to  the  mind,  but  which  serve  to 
bind  other  words  together  and  to  show  their  relations 
to  each  other  in  connected  speech,*  the  prepositions  form 
a  very  important  class.  Their  use  is  illustrated  in  the 
following  sentences :  — 

The  walls  of  the  factory  fell  with  a  crash. 

The  dog  lay  ly  the  fire. 

The  hat  on  the  table  is  mine. 

This  train  goes  to  Chicago. 

He  wrapped  his  cloak  about  me. 

In  the  first  sentence,  for  example,  the  word  of  not 
merely  connects  the  two  nouns  walls  and  factory,  but  it 
shows  the  relation  between  them ;  the  walls  belong  to  the 
factory.  Omit  of,  and  we  no  longer  know  what  the 
factory  and  the  walls  have  to  do  with  each  other. 

Again,  in  the  same  sentence,  with  shows  the  relation 
of  the  noun  crash  to  the  verb  fell ;  the  act  of  falling 
was  accompanied  by  a  loud  noise.  Omit  with,  and  the 
sense  of  the  passage  vanishes. 

So  in  each  of  the  other  sentences  the  italicized  word 
(a  preposition)  shows  the  relation  between  the  noun  that 
follows  it  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

Accordingly,  we  have  the  following  definition :  — 

103.  A  Preposition  shows  the  relation  of  the  substantive 
which  follows  it  to  some  other  word  or  words  in  the  sentence. 

*  See  Introduction,  p.  xiv. 


56  TEE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

104.  The  substantive  which  follows  a  preposition  is  called 
its  Object,  and  is  said  to  be  in  the  Objective  Case. 

Thus,  in  the  first  example  in  §  102,  the  noun  factor// 
is  the  object  of  the  preposition  of  and  the  noun  crash  is 
the  object  of  the  preposition  with.  In  the  last  example 
the  pronoun  one  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  about. 

Other  examples  may  be  seen  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

The  savages  fought  with  fury. 

The  anchor  was  made  of  iron. 

The  train  runs  from  Boston  to  New  York. 

The  banner  floated  over  the  castle. 

We  shall  arrive  at  Denver  before  morning. 

105.  A  preposition  may  have  two  or  more  objects.     Tims,  — 

The  fireman  dashed  through  smoke  and  flame. 

Here  the  two  nouns  smoke  and  flame  are  the  objects 
of  the  preposition  through. 

He  feathers  his  oars  with  skill  and  dexterity. 

The  father  sought  his  lost  boy  in  highways  and  byways. 

The  hunters  galloped  through  field  and  forest. 

The  road  runs  over  hill  and  plain. 

106.  Some  words  that  are  usually  prepositions  may  be 
attached  to  certain  verbs  as  adverbial  suffixes.     Thus,  - 

The  ship  lay  to. 

A  fierce  storm  set  in. 

The  fainting  man  came  to. 

The  darkness  came  on. 

A  friend  of  mine  came  in. 

He  passed  by  on  the  other  side. 

In  this  use  the  adverb  is  practically  a  part  of  the  verb. 


PREP  0S1  Tl  ONS.  5  7 


EXERCISES. 


Fill  the  blanks  with  prepositions  showing  the  relation 
of  the  italicized  words  to  each  other. 

1.  John's  hat  hung the  peg. 

2.  The  river  rises the  mountains  and  jloics a  great 

plain the  sea. 

3.  The  miseries  of  numbed  hands  and  shivering  skins  no 
longer  accompany  every  pull the  river. 

4.  He  was a  particularly  good-humor  with  himself. 

5.  His  conscience  pricked  him  for  intruding Hardy  during 

his  hours  of  work. 

6.  Tom   came    to    understand    the    differences  his  two 

heroes. 

7.  Such  cruelty  Jills  us indignation. 

8.  He  was  haunted a  hundred  fears. 

9.  a    score    of    minutes    Garbetts    came    back   an 

anxious  and  crestfallen  countenance. 

10.  To  drive  the  deer hound  and  horn 

Earl  Percy  took  his  way. 

11.  Cooks,  butlers,  and  their,  assistants  were  bestirring  them- 
selves   the  kitchen.  9 

12.  The  weary  traveller  was  sleeping a  tree. 

13.  Jack  hid the  door. 

14.  I  will  call dinner. 

II. 

Use  the  following  prepositions,  with  objects,  in  sen- 
tences :  — 

Of,  in,  upon,  from,  by,  to,  into,  during,  along,  behind,  within, 
Without,  till,  up,  down,  round,  at,  beside,  before,  against,  about, 
concerning,  except,  but  (=  except),  beyond,  through,  throughout, 
after,  above,  beneath,  over,  under. 


58  THE   MOTHER' TONGUE. 

III. 

In  the  following  sentences  (1)  find  the  prepositions ; 
(2)  mention  their  objects  ;  (3)  point  out  the  word  with 
which  each  preposition  connects  its  object ;  (4)  tell  what 
part  of  speech  that  word  is  if  you  can. 

1.  The  village  maid  steals  through  the  shade. 

2.  His  eyes  burnt  like  coals  under  his  deep  brows. 

3.  Their  vessels  were  moored  in  our  bay. 

4.  The  hounds  ran  swiftly  through  the  woods. 

5.  They  knocked  at  our  gates  for  admittance. 

6.  I  grew  weary  of  the  sea  and  intended  to  stay  at  home 
with  my  wife  and  family. 

7.  Several  officers  of  the  army  went  to  the  door  of  the  great 
council-chamber. 

8.  This  seems  to  me  but  melancholy  work. 

9.  The  bowmen  mustered  on  the  hills. 

10.  Death  lays  his  icy  hand  on  kings. 

11.  Untie  these  bands  from  off  my  hands. 

12.  Down  the  wide  stairs  a  darkling  way  they  found. 

13.  He  halts,  and  searches  with  his  eyes 
^     Among  the  scattered  rocks. 

14.  The  cottage  windows  through  the  twilight  blazed. 

15.  All  shod  with  steel, 

We  hissed  aloug  the  polished  ice. 

16.  He  was  full  of  joke  and  jest. 

17.  Lady  Waldegrave  swept  her  fingers  over  a  harp  which 
stood  near. 

IV. 

Find  fifteen  prepositions  in  some  poem  in  your  read- 
ing book.     Mention  the  object  of  each  preposition. 

Between  what  other  word  and  its  object  does  each 
preposition  show  the  relation? 


C  ON  J  UNC  TI ONS.  5  9 

CHAPTER    XXV. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

107.  Conjunction  means  "connective."  Certain  words 
which  do  not  themselves  express  any  distinct  ideas, 
but  which  serve  to  make  clearer  the  connection  between 
ideas  expressed  by  other  words,  are  grouped  together 
as  conjunctions. 

Their  use  is  illustrated  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Have  you  seen  Jack  and  Tom  this  morning? 

The  boy  and  his  dog  went  up  the  road. 

Is  New  York  or  Philadelphia  the  larger  city? 

The  wildcat  scratched  and  bit  fiercely. 

The  teacher  struck  a  bell  and  the  pupils  all  rose. 

You  are  strong,  but  I  am  weak. 

I  will  help  him  if  he  is  poor. 

The  people  rebelled  because  they  were  abused. 

The  italicized  words  in  these  sentences  are  conjunc- 
tions. Though  they  differ  much  in  the  amount  and 
kind  of  meaning  which  they  express,  they  are  all  alike 
in  one  respect  —  they  are  connectives. 

Thus,  in  the  first  sentence,  the  two  nouns  Jack  and  Tom  are 
connected  by  and ;  in  the  second,  and  connects  the  boy  and  his 
dog;  in  the  fourth,  two  verbs  are  joined  by  means  of  and;  in 
the  sixth,  but  binds  together  two  statements,  "  You  are  strong  " 
and  "  I  am  weak." 

Hence  we  have  the  following  definition :  — 

108.  Conjunctions  connect  words  or  groups  of  words. 

109.  The  groups  of  words  connected  by  conjunctions  may  be 
whole  Sentences. 


60  Tif.6;   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Thus,  in  the  last  example  above,  the  conjunction 
because  connects  "The  people  rebelled"  and  "  They  were 
abused,"  each  of  which  could  stand  by  itself  as  a  com- 
plete sentence. 

When  two  or  more  sentences  are  thus  combined  to 
make  one  longer  sentence,  they  are  called  clauses. 

The  study  of  clauses  and  the  classification  of  con- 
junctions must  be  reserved  for  later  chapters. 

110.  The  most  important  English  conjunctions  are :  — 

And  (both  .  .  .  and),  or  (either  .  .  .  or),  nor  (neither  .  .  .  nor), 
but,  for,  however,  nevertheless,  therefore,  wherefore,  still,  yet, 
because,  since  (=  because),  though,  although,  if,  unless,  that, 
whether,  as  (=  because),  than,  lest. 

111.  Prepositions,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  may  be  re- 
garded as  connectives ;  but  there  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  two  parts  of  speech. 

A  preposition  (as  we  have  already  seen  in  Chapter 
XXIV)  not  only  connects  its  object  with  some  other 
word  in  the  sentence  but  indicates  a  close  and  definite 
grammatical  relation  between  the  two.  A  conjunction, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  no  object,  and  simply  makes 
clear  some  connection  of  thought  between  two  words 
or  groups  of  words.     Thus,  — 

Snow  and  ice  are  both  cold. 

[Here  and  simply  connects  the  two  nouns  snow  and  ice  without 
affecting  the  sense  of  either.     It  is  therefore  a  conj unction.'] 

Snow  on  ice  makes  poor  skating. 

[Here  on  shows  some  relation  between  the  noun  ice,  its  object, 
and  the  noun  snoiv.  It  indicates  the  position  of  the  ice  with 
respect  to  the  snow  ;  the  snow  is  above  and  the  ice  beneath. 
Hence  on  is  a  preposition. ] 


CONJUNCTIONS.  61 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Pick  out  the  conjunctions,  and  tell  what  words,  or 
groups  of  words,  they  connect. 

1.  The  wind  was  high  and  the  clouds  were  dark, 
And  the  boat  returned  no  more. 

2.  It  was  the  time  when  lilies  blow 
And  clouds  are  highest  up  in  air. 

3.  Beating  heart  and  burning  brow,  ye  are  very  patient  now. 

4.  The  uncouth  person  in  the  tattered  garments  dropped  on 
both  knees  on  the  pavement,  and  took  her  hand  in  his,  and  kissed 
it  in  passionate  gratitude. 

5.  He  rose,  and  stood  with  his  cap  in  his  hand. 

6.  She  bowed  to  him,  and  passed  on,  grave  and  stately. 

7.  She  was  an  amiable  but  strictly  matter-of-fact  person. 

8.  Brand  became  more  and  more  convinced  that  this  family 
was  the  most  delightful  family  in  England. 

9.  If  there  were  any  stranger  here  at  all,  we  should  not  dream 
of  asking  you  to  sing. 

10.  Helen  was  on  the  lookout  for  this  expected  guest,  and  saw 
him  from  her  window.     But  she  did  not  come  forward. 

11.  I  am  busy  and  content. 

12.  Carrying  this  fateful  letter  in  his  hand,  he  went  down- 
stairs and  out  into  the  cool  night  air. 

13.  For  Romans  in  Rome's  quarrel 

Spared  neither  land  nor  gold, 
Nor  son  nor  wife,  nor  limb  nor  life, 
In  the  brave  days  of  old. 

14.  He  was  neither  angry  nor  impatient. 

15.  There  were  forty  craft  in  Aves  that  were  both  swift  and 
stout. 

16.  We  knew  you  must  come  by  sooner  or  later. 

17.  He  continued  his  story,  though  his  listener  seemed  singu- 
larly preoccupied  and  thoughtful. 


62  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

II. 
Make  sentences  containing :  — 

1.  Two  nouns  connected  by  and ;  by  or. 

2.  A  noun  and  a  pronoun  connected  by  and ;  by  or. 

3.  Two  adjectives  connected  by  and ;  by  or. 

4.  Two  adverbs  connected  by  and ;  by  or. 

5.  Two  verbs  connected  by  and ;  by  or. 

6.  Two  adverbs  connected  by  and ;  by  or. 

7.  Neither nor  connecting  nouns. 

8.  Neither nor  connecting  pronouns. 

9.  Neither nor  connecting  adjectives. 

10.  Neither  • nor  connecting  adverbs. 

11.  Neither nor  connecting  verbs. 

12-16.  Either or,  used  like  neither  nor  in  7-11. 

17.  Three  nouns  in  a  series,  with  two  conjunctions ;  with  one. 

18.  Three  verbs  in  a  series,  with  two  conjunctions ;  with  one. 

III. 
Make  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the  follow- 
ing conjunctions  :  — 

And,  but,  or,  nor,  neither,  if,  however,  although,  since,  for, 
because,  whether,  than. 

IV. 

Find  ten  conjunctions  in  Exercise  I,  pp.  11,  12,  and 
tell  what  each  conjunction  connects. 

V. 
Fill  each  blank  with  a  conjunction. 

1.  Iron,  lead, gold  are  metals. 

2.  Jack  nor  Joe  is  at  school. 

3.  you  do  not  hurry,  you  will  miss  the  train. 

4.  Either  Mary Francis  is  to  blame. 

5.  There  are lions tigers  in  the  jungle. 

6.  one  or  the  other  of  us  must  give  way. 


IN  TEUJE  C 1  '1 ONS.  6  3 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

112.  Examine  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Oh  !  how  sorry  I  am  ! 
Ah!  my  friend,  here  you  are  ! 
Hallo  !  there  are  the  dancing  bears  ! 
Bah  !  this  is  disgusting. 

In  these  sentences  the  italicized  words  are  mere  cries 
or  exclamatory  sounds.  Indeed,  they  are  hardly  words  at 
all,  and  may  be  compared  with  the  bark  of  a  dog  or  the 
mewing  of  a  cat.  They  express  emotion  or  feeling  but 
have  no  distinct  sense. 

Thus,  the  single  word  oh  !  uttered  in  various  tones 
of  the  voice,  may  suggest  almost  any  kind  of  feeling,  — 
anger,  distress,  surprise,  delight,  scorn,  pity,  and  so  on. 

Such  words  are  called  interjections  (that  is,  words  inter- 
jected or  "  thrown  in  "),  because  they  usually  have  no 
grammatical  connection  with  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tences in  which  they  stand. 

113.  An  Interjection  is  a  cry  or  other  exclamatory  sound  ex- 
pressing surprise,  anger,  pleasure,  or  some  other  emotion  or  feeling. 

An  interjection  is  often  followed  by  an  exclamation 
point  (!). 

114.  Interjections  usually  have  no  grammatical  connection 
with  the  phrases  or  sentences  in  which  they  stand. 

115.  In  analyzing  a  sentence,  any  interjections  that  it 
contains  are  mentioned  separately,  since  they  have  no 
genuine  grammatical  relation  with  the  rest  of  the 
sentence. 


64  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

116.  The  number  of  possible  interjections  is  almost 
limitless.     The  following'  are  among  the  commonest  :  — 

Oh  (or  0),  ah,  hullo  (holloa,  halloo),  bah,  pshaw,  fie,  whew, 
tut-tut,  st  (often  spelled  hist),  ha,  aha,  ha-ha,  ho,  hey,  hum,  hem, 
heigh-ho,  (heigh-o),  alas,  bravo. 

Calls  to  animals  (like  ivhoa,  haw,  gee)  and  imitations  of  the 
voices  of  animals  (like  mew,  bow-wow,  etc.)  are  also  interjections. 

The  spelling  of  an  interjection  is  often  a  very  imper- 
fect representation  of  its  sound. 


EXERCISES. 

i. 

In  the  following  sentences  pick  out  the  interjections 
and  tell  what  emotion  you  think  each  expresses. 

1.  Fie,  fie !  they  are  not  to  be  named,  my  lord. 

2.  Pish  for  thee,  Iceland  dog ! 

3.  Lo !  where  the  giant  on  the  mountain  stands. 

4.  "  Ah  me  !  "  she  cries,  "  was  ever  moonlight  seen  so  clear?  " 

5.  Pshaw  !  this  neglect  is  accident,  and  the  effect  of  hurry. 

6.  O,  let  us  yet  be  merciful. 

7.  That  I  did  love  thee,  Caesar,  O,  't  is  true. 

8.  The  Wildgrave  winds  his  bugle-horn, 
To  horse,  to  horse  !  halloo  !   halloo  ! 

9.  But  psha  !  I  've  the  heart  of  a  soldier, 
All  gentleness,  mercy,  and  pity. 

10.  Louder  rang  the  Wildgravers  horn, 

"  Hark  forward,  forward  !  holla,  ho  !  " 

11.  Huzza  for  the  Arethusa  !   She  is  a  frigate  tight  and  brave. 

II. 
Try  to  think  of  some  interjections  that  you  are  in 
the  habit  of  using,  and  frame  sentences  containing  them. 
What  emotion  does  each  express? 


PHRASES.  65 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 

PHRASES. 

117.  To  express  thought  we  use,  as  you  have  already 
learned,  words  combined  into  sentences. 

Sentences,  however,  are  not  the  only  groups  of  con- 
nected words  which  language  employs  in  the  expression 
of  thought. 

118.  Examine  the  following  sentences,  noting  the  itali- 
cized words :  — 

The  President  of  the  United  States  |  lives  in  the  White  House. 
The  Duke  of  Marlborough  |  -was  victorious  at  Blenheim. 
A  girdle  of  gold  |  encircled  the  sultan's  waist. 

In  the  first  and  second  sentences,  President  of  the 
United  States  and  Duke  of  Marlborough  are  groups  of 
words  which  serve  as  the  names  of  persons  ;  in  the  White 
House  and  at  Blenheim  are  groups  of  words  answering 
the  question  «  Where  ?  "  In  the  third,  of  gold  is  a  group 
describing  the  girdle  ;  girdle  of  gold  and  golden  girdle 
mean  the  same  thing. 

Each  of  these  groups  may  be  said  to  be  used  as  a 
single  part  of  speech. 

Thus,  President  of  the  United  States  and  Duke  of 
Marlborough  may  be  called  nouns,  for  they  are  the  names 
of  persons ;  of  gold  is  like  an  adjective,  for  it  describes 
the  noun  girdle,  as  the  adjective  golden  would  do ;  in  the 
White  House  and  at  Blenheim  are  like  adverbs  of  place,  for 
they  modify  verbs  and  answer  the  question  "  Where  ?  " 

The  groups  that  we  are  studying  are  not  sentences,  for 
they  do  not  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

Such  groups  are  known  as  phrases. 


66  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

119.  A  group  of  connected  words,  not  containing  a  subject  and 
a  predicate,  is  called  a  Phrase. 

A  Phrase  is  often  equivalent  to  a  Part  of  Speech. 

120.  In  the  following  sentences  each  group  of  italicized 
words  is  a  phrase.     See  if  you  can  tell  why. 

That  fireman  will  be  killed. 

Jack  hit  the  ball  with  all  his  might. 

The  messenger  was  running  up  the  road  at  full  speed. 

The  knight's  armor  was  of  burnished  steel. 

A  man  of  courage  surely  would  have  made  the  attempt. 

The  master  of  the  school  was  named  Lawson. 

The  mayor  of  San  Francisco  has  an  office  in  the  City  Hall. 

Tell,  if  you  can,  what  part  of  speech  each  of  these 
phrases  stands  for  or  resembles. 


EXERCISES. 

I. 
Make  sentences  of  your  own  containing  the  follow- 
ing phrases :  — 

Baseball  club,  Queen  of  England,  will  come,  has  travelled, 
North  American  Continent,  Isthmus  of  Suez,  in  the  street,  on 
the  playground,  with  an  effort,  of  fur,  of  silver,  had  tried,  at  sea, 
at  home,  in  school,  of  iron,  of  stone,  with  the  exception  of,  out  of, 
in  front  of,  against  my  will. 

II. 

Tell,  if  you  can,  what  part  of  speech  each  of  the 
phrases  in  I,  above,  resembles  in  its  use  in  your  sentence. 

in. 
Take  each  of  the  phrases  to  pieces  and  name  the  parts 
of  speech  of  which  it  consists. 


PHRASES.  67 


IV. 


Find  one  phrase  in  each  of  the  following  sentences. 
Tell,  if  yon  can,  for  what  part  of  speech  it  stands. 

1.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed  in  1776. 

2.  The  House  of  Representatives  has  adjourned. 

3.  Professor  Edward  Johnston  is  now  in  Sioux  City. 

4.  The  great  Desert  of  Sahara  is  in  the  Continent  of  Africa. 

5.  All  were  on  their  feet  in  a  moment. 

G.  The  preparations  for  disembarking  had  begun. 

7.  The    Pacific    Mail    Steamship  Company  has  an  office  at 
this  port. 

8.  Isabel  shuddered  with  horror. 

9.  I  am  a  man  of  peace,  though  my  abode  now  rings  with 
arms. 

10.  They  were  all  running  at  full  speed. 

11.  They  had  fixed  the  wedding  day. 

12.  There  are  many  thousand  Cinderellas  in  London,  and 
elsewhere  in  England. 

13.  The  maddened,  terrified  horse  went  like  the  wind. 

14.  The  Prince  of  Wales  is  heir  to  the  crown  of  England. 

15.  "In  two  days,"  Cromwell  said  coolly,  "the  city  will  be 
in  our  hands." 

16.  The  scene  had  now  become  in  tin'  utmost  degree  ani- 
mated and  horrible. 

17.  There  were  upwards  of  three  hundred  strangers  in  the 
house. 

18.  The  dog  is  not  of  mountain  breed. 

19.  The  boys  were  coming  out  of  the  grammar-school  in 
shoals,  laughing,  running,  whooping,  as  the  manner  of  boys  is. 

20.  My  father  walked  up  and  down  the  room  with  impatience. 

21.  Mr.  Thomas  Inkle  of  London,  aged  twenty  years,  em- 
barked in  the  Downs  on  the  good  ship  called  the  Achilles, 
bound  for  the  West  Indie's,  on  the  16th  of  June,  1647,  in  order 
to  improve  his  fortune  by  trade  and  merchandise. 


68  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

ADJECTIVE   PHRASES. 

121.  Instead  of  using  an  adjective  to  describe  or  limit  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  we  may  often  use  a  prepositional  phrase, 
—  that  is,  a  phrase  consisting  of  a  preposition  and  its 
object. 

Thus,  instead  of  "  an  honorable  man,"  we  may  say  "  a 
man  of  honor  " ;  instead  of  "  a  bad-tempered  fellow," 
"a  fellow  with  a  bad  temper'''' ;  instead  of  "a  Brazilian 
Indian,"  "an  Indian  from  Brazil.'''' 

Phrases  thus  used  are  called  adjective  phrases. 

122.  A  substantive  may  be  modified  by  a  Prepositional  Phrase 
which  describes  or  limits  it  as  an  adjective  would  do  and  which  is 
therefore  called  an  Adjective  Phrase. 

A  person  of  experience  is  usually  a  safe  guide. 

The  bale  of  cotton  was  held  together  by  bands  of  iron. 

He  received  the  freedom  of  the  city  in  a  box  of  polished  silver. 

He  rang  the  bell  and  a  man  in  black  came  to  the  door. 

He  received  a  book  with  pictures  as  a  present. 

The  judge  was  a  man  toithout  mercy. 

Spices  from  the  East  were  used  to  flavor  the  dish. 

The  ring  was  made  of  gold  from  Australia. 

123.  An  adjective  phrase  is,  as  we  have  seen,  often  a 
mere  substitute  for  a  single  adjective.  Thus,  "  a  man 
without  mercy"  is  "a  merciless  man";  "gold  from 
Australia "  is  the  same  thing  as  "  Australian  gold  "  ; 
"  spices  from  the  East'"  are  "  Oriental  spices." 

It  is,  however,  not  always  possible  to  substitute  an 
adjective  for  an  adjective  phrase.     The  descriptive  ideas 


ADJECTIVE   PHRASES.  09 

which  have  to  be  expressed  in  speech  and  writing  are 
countless,  and  our  stock  of  adjectives  is  limited.  Hence 
the  power  to  form  adjective  phrases  freely  adds  enor- 
mously to  the  richness  and  variety  of  the  English 
language. 

EXERCISES. 

i. 
Find  the  adjective  phrases  and  tell  what  substantive 
each  describes  or  limits. 

1.  A  man  of    strong   understanding  is  generally  a  man  of 
strong  character. 

2.  His  flaxen  hair,  of  sunny  hue, 
Curled  closely  round  his  bonnet  blue. 

3.  Eastward  was  built  a  gate  of  marble  white. 

4.  He  found  a  strong,  fierce-looking  Highlander,  with  an  axe 
on  his  shoulder,  standing  sentinel  at  the  door. 

5.  Hard  by  a  poplar  shook  alway, 
All  silver-green,  with  gnarled  bark. 

6.  The  gentleness  of  heaven  is  on  the  sea. 

7.  The  balustrade  of  the  staircase  was  also  of  carved  wood. 

8.  Of  stature  fair,  and  slender  frame, 
But  firmly  knit,  was  Malcolm  Graeme. 

9.  It  was  a  lodge  of  ample  size. 

10.  This  gentleman  was  a  man  of  unquestioned  courage. 

11.  An  emperor  in  his  nightcap  would  not  meet  with  half  the 
respect  of  an  emperor  with  a  glittering  crown. 

12.  Our  affairs  are  in  a  bad  condition. 

13.  Vathek  arose  in  the  morning  with  a  mind  more  at  ease. 

14.  Her  own  mind  was  now  in  a  state  of  the  utmost  confu- 
sion. 

15.  Griffiths  was  a  hard  business  man,  of  shrewd,  worldly  good 
sense,  but  of  little  refinement  or  cultivation. 


70  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

II. 

Substitute  for  each  italicized  adjective  an  adjective 
phrase  without  changing  the  general  meaning  of  the 
sentence.     Thus,  — 

The  cashier  was  a  strictly  honest  man. 
The  cashier  was  a  man  of  strict  honest;/. 

1.  The  cashier  was  a  strictly  honest  man. 

2.  A  very  deep  ravine  checked  our  advance. 

3.  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

4.  Wooden  pillars  supported  the  roof. 

5.  The  wanderer's  clothing  was  ragged. 

6.  The  sailor  carried  an  ivory-handled  knife. 

7.  The  runner  was  quite  breathless. 

8.  The  baron  lived  in  his  ancestral  castle. 

9.  Light-hearted  he  rose  in  the  morning. 

10.  Dr.  Rush  was  a  skilful  and  experienced  physician. 

III. 
Replace  the  adjective  phrases  by  adjectives  without 
materially  changing  the  sense. 

1.  Warrington  was  of  a  quick  and  impetuous  temper. 

2.  The  road  was  not  of  the  most  picturesque  description. 

3.  Fanny  left  the  room  with  a  sorrowful  heart. 

4.  You  are  a  man  of  sense. 

5.  Upon  the  hero's  head  was  a  helmet  of  brass. 

6.  Bring  forth  the  goblets  of  gold  ! 

7.  To  scale  the  wall  was  a  task  of  great  difficulty. 

8.  The  old  soldier  was  in  poverty. 

9.  We  were  all  in  high  spirits. 

10.  A  river  of  great  width  had  to  be  crossed. 

11.  He  told  his  fellow-prisoners,  in  this  darkest  time,  to  be 
of  courage. 

12.  This  is  a  matter  of  importance. 

13.  The  beasl  glared  a1  me  with  eyes  of  fire. 


ADVERBIAL   PHRASES.  71 

CHAPTER    XXIX. 

ADVERBIAL  PHRASES. 

124.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  learned  that  a  phrase 
may  often  be  used  instead  of  an  adjective. 

Similarly,  a  great  variety  of  phrases  may  be  used 
instead  of  adverbs,  and  such  phrases  are  called  adverbial 
phrases. 

125.  In  the  sentence, 

The  lady  received  her  visitor  graciously, 
graciously  is   an   adverb  of   manner  modifying    the    verb 
received. 

Without  changing  the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  we 
may  substitute  for  the  adverb  graciously  any  one  of  sev- 
eral phrases.     Thus,  — 

The  lady  received  her  visitor  in  a  gracious  way. 
The  lady  received  her  visitor  in  a  gracious  manner. 
The  lady  received  her  visitor  with  graciousness. 
The  lady  received  her  visitor  in  a  gracious  fashion. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  a  prepositional  phrase  has 
been  substituted  for  the  adverb  graciously,  but  the  mean- 
ing has  not  been  changed  at  all.  In  other  words,  the 
adverbial  phrases  in  a  gracious  manner,  in  a  gracious 
way,  etc.,  modify  the  verb  received  just  as  the  adverb 
graciously  modifies  it. 

Substitute  adverbs  of  manner  for  the  italicized  phrases  :  — 

The  hunter  crept  along  with  caution. 

I  was  received  in  silence. 

A  gainst  my  will  I  obey  you. 

Do  you  say  this  in  jest ! 

He  struggled  hard,  but  without  success. 


72  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

126.  The  number  of  adverbs  of  time  or  place  in  the 
English  language  is  ciumj^uively  limited.  Hence 
n  is  often  necessary  to^Kress  time  or  place  by  means 
of  a  phrase.     Thus,  — 

I.  Adverbial  phrases  of  time  :  — 

He  lived  there  many  years  ago. 
The  letter  will  probably  arrive  in  a  few  days. 
At  this  instant  a  large  ship  was  sighted. 
King  Alfred  ruled  England  in  days  of  old. 
We  expect  to  settle  this  claim  in  the  future. 

II.  Adverbial  phrases  of  place  :  — 

The  carpenter  lives  in  this  neighborhood. 

The  governor  of  Massachusetts  resides  in  Boston. 

Caesar  conquered  Pompey's  sons  at  Munda  in  Spain. 

My  mother  is  not  at  home. 

The  building  stands  in  the  square. 

All  such  phrases  are,  of  course,  adverbial  phrases 
modifying  the  verb  in  the  same  way  in  which  a  single 
adverb  of  time  or  place  would  have  modified  it. 

127.  Other  examples  of  adverbial  phrases  of  time  or 
place  are  the  following :  — 

I.  Time  :  before  long,  in  olden  times,  in  youth,  in  age,  in 
middle  life,  without  delay,  on  the  spot,  of  yore,  of  old. 

II.  Place  :  in  town,  away  from  home,  at  a  distance,  in  this 
vicinity,  in  front,  at  one  side,  to  windward,  to  the  eastward. 

128.  Degree,  like  manner,  time,  or  place,  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  an  adverbial  phrase.     Thus,  — 

The  strength  of  one's  memory  depends  to  a  great  extent  on  one's 
habits  of  thought. 

His  report  was  by  no  means  accurate. 

My  friend  always  enjoys  himself  in  the  extreme. 


■1A1   " 


ADVERBIAL   PHRASES.  73 

129.  In  accordance  with  the  examples  in  the  preced- 
ing sections  we  have  the  following  rule :  — 

A  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb  may  be  modified  by  a 
phrase  used  as  an  adverb. 

Such  phrases  are  called  adverbial  phrases. 

130.  Most  adverbial  phrases  consist  of  a  preposition 
and  its  object  or  objects,  with  or  without  modifiers ;  but 
many  idiomatic  phrases  of  other  kinds  are  used  adver- 
bially.    Thus,  — 

To  and  fro,  now  and  then,  up  and  down,  again  and  again, 
first  and  last,  full  speed,  full  tilt,  hit  or  miss,  more  or  less,  head 
first,  upside  down,  inside  out,  sink  or  swim,  cash  down. 

Many  of  these  phrases  may  be  regarded  as  compound  adverbs. 

131.  A  phrase  consisting  of  a  noun  and  its  modifiers 
may  be  used  adverbially.     Thus,  — 

I  have  been  waiting  a  long  time. 
Jackson  was  forty-three  years  old. 
The  river  is  almost  two  miles  wide. 
The  gun  carries  Jive  miles. 
Move  the  table  this  way. 
This  rope  is  several  fathoms  too  short. 
They  rode  silently  the  whole  way. 
You  can  do  nothing  that  way. 
They  marched  Indian  fie. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  phrase  a  lonf/  time  modifies  the  verb- 
phrase  have  been  waiting  as  an  adverb  of  time  would  do.  The 
phrase  consists  of  the  noun  time  with  its  adjective  modifiers  the 
article  a  and  the  adjective  long.  In  the  second  sentence,  the 
phrase  forty-three  years  modifies  the  adjective  old  as  an  adverb  of 
degree  would  do. 

Study  the  other  phrases  in  the  same  way. 


74  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Use  each  of  the  adverbial  phrases  in  §  127,  i  and  II, 
in  a  sentence. 

Do  the  same  with  those  in  §  130. 

ii. 

Here  is  a  short  list  of  adverbs  with  adverbial  phrases 
which  have  the  same  meaning :  — 

courageously  :  with  courage.  furiously  :  with  fury, 

eloquently  :  with  eloquence.  easily :  with  ease,  without  effort, 

purposely  :  on  purpose.  fearlessly  :  without  fear, 

unwillingly  :  against  his  will.  vainly  :  in  vain. 

Try  to  continue  the  list. 

Make  a  sentence   including  each  of  these  adverbs. 
Substitute  for  the  adverb  the  corresponding  phrase. 

in. 

Pick  out  the  adverbial  phrases  and  tell  what  each 
modifies. 

1.  Early  in  the  morning  a  sudden  storm  drove  us  within  two 
or  three  leagues  of  Ireland. 

2.  These  things  terrified  the  people  to  the  last  degree. 

3.  At  the  first  glimpse  of  dawn  he  hastened  to  the  prison. 

4.  The  wall  fell  with  a  crash. 

5.  By  daybreak  we  had  sailed  out  of  sight  of  land. 

6.  The  full  light  of  day  had  now  risen  upon  the  desert. 

7.  With  smiles  the  rising  morn  we  greet. 

8.  Innumerable  dismal  stories  we  heard  every  day. 

9.  Homer  surpasses  all  men  in  this  quality. 

10.  Her  time  was  filled  by  regular  occupations. 

11.  I  say  this  to  you  wholly  in  confidence. 


PHRASES  AS  MODIFIERS.  75 

CHAPTER   XXX. 

ANALYSIS.  — PHRASES  AS  MODIFIERS. 

132.  In  analyzing  sentences  we  have  already  seen  that 
the  subject  may  be  modified  by  one  or  more  adjectives, 
and  the  predicate  by  one  or  more  adverbs  (p.  58). 

We  have  since  learned  that  a  phrase  may  take  the 
place  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb.  Obviously,  there- 
fore, among  the  modifiers  of  the  subject  there  may  occur 
adjective  phrases,  and  among  the  modifiers  of  the  predi- 
cate there  may  occur  adverbial  phrases.      Thus, — 

A  man  of  courage  will  not  be  overcome  by  trifling  obstacles. 

Here  the  complete  subject  is  a  man  of  courage ;  the  complete 
predicate  is  will  not  be  overcome  by  trifling  obstacles.  The  simple 
subject  is  man,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjective  phrase  of  cour- 
age; the  simple  predicate  is  the  verb-phrase  will  be  overcome,  which 
is  modified  (1)  by  the  negative  adverb  not  and  (2)  by  the  adver- 
bial phrase  by  trifling  obstacles. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Analyze  the  sentences  on  page  74  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  Divide  each  sentence  into  the  complete  subject 
and  the  complete  predicate. 

(2)  Point  out  the  simple  subject  and  the  simple 
predicate. 

(3)  Mention  the  modifiers  of  the  subject,  whether 
adjectives  or  adjective  phrases. 

(4)  Mention  the  modifiers  of  the  predicate,  whether 
adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases. 

This  is  the  usual  order  of  analysis  and  may  be  used  as 
a  model. 


7G  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

II. 

In  the  following  sentences  pick  out  all  the  prepo- 
sitional phrases  and  tell  whether  each  is  an  adjective 
phrase  or  an  adverbial  phrase. 

In  the  former  case  mention  the  noun  or  pronoun  to 
which  the  phrase  belongs.  In  the  latter  case  mention 
the  verb,  adjective,  or  adverb  which  it  modilies. 

1.  A  long  journey  lay  before  us. 

2.  The  kitchen  soon  was  all  on  fire. 

3.  The  sea-fowl  is  gone  to  her  nest ; 

The  beast  is  laid  down  in  his  lair. 

4.  He  was  regarded  as  a  merchant  of  great  wealth. 
6.  The  night  was  Winter  in  his  roughest  mood. 

6.  The  chiming  clocks  to  dinner  call. 

7.  The  blanket  of  night  is  drawn  asunder  for  a  moment. 

8.  Green  pastures  she  views  in  the  midst  of  the  dale. 

9.  In  this  state  of  breathless  agitation  did  I  stand  for  some 
time. 

10.  The  solution  of  this  difficulty  must  come  from  you. 

11.  Grapevines  here  and  there  twine  themselves  round  shrub 
and  tree. 

12.  Our  coach  rattled  out  of  the  city. 

13.  La  Fleur  flew  out  of  the  room  like  lightning. 

14.  Graham  came  from  his  hiding-place  in  the  neighboring 
mountains. 

15.  Battles  and  skirmishes  were  fought  on  all  sides. 

16.  The  stone  cannot  be  moved  from  its  place  hy  any  force. 

17.  In  silent  horror  o'er  the  boundless  waste 

The  driver  Hassan  with  his  camels  passed. 

18.  They  sat  them  down  upon  the  yellow  sand, 
Between  the  sun  and  moon  upon  the  shore. 

19.  Large  towns  were  founded  in  different  parts  of  the  king- 
dom. 

20.  My  days  now  rolled  on  in  a  perfect  dream  of  happiness. 


NUMBER.  77 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

NUMBER. 

133.    Study  the  following  sentences  :  — 

The  dog  was  very  hungry. 
The  dogs  were  very  hungry. 

If  we  compare  these  two  sentences,  we  see  at  once 
that  the  subject  of  the  first  (dog)  denotes  a  single  animal, 
whereas  the  subject  of  the  second  (dogs)  denotes  two  or 
more  animals. 

This  difference  in  the  number  of  animals  referred  to 
is  shown  by  a  difference  in  the  form  of  the  noun.  Dogs 
has  an  -s  and  dog  has  not. 

Similarly,  in  the  following  sentences  we  can  tell 
immediately,  from  the  form  of  each  noun,  whether  one  per- 
son or  thing  is  meant  or  more  than  one :  — 

The  Arabs  are  mounted  on  horses  trained  to  battle  or  retreat. 

The  hermit  sat  on  a  bench  at  the  door. 

The  shepherds  gave  the  wanderer  milk  and  fruits. 

These  thoughts  were  often  in  his  mind. 

Again,  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  we  can  tell 
from  the  form  of  the  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  whether 
one  person  or  thing  is  meant  or  more  than  one :  — 

We  stopped  near  a  spring  shaded  with  trees. 

They  clambered  up  the  side  of  the  ravine. 

I  understand  you  very  well. 

Seldom  we  view  the  prospect  fair. 

He  dug  a  deep  hole  in  the  orchard. 

It  is  a  rattlesnake. 

She  sat  spinning  before  the  door  of  her  cottage. 


78 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Accordingly,  we  have  the  following  definitions :  — 

134.  Number  is  that  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns  which 
shows  whether  they  indicate  one  person  or  thing  or  more  than 
one. 

135.  There  are  two  numbers,  —  the  Singular  and  the  Plural. 
The  Singular  Number  denotes  but  one  person  or  thing  The 
Plural  Number  denotes  more  than  one  person  or  thing. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  president  was  elected 
by  a  large  majority,"  the  noun  president  is  in  the  singular 
number,  in  the  sentence,  "Presidents  of  the  United 
States  have  great  power,"  jwesidents  is  in  the  plural 
number. 

Again,  in  the  sentence,  "  He  failed  to  win  the  game," 
the  pronoun  he  is  in  the  singular  number,  for  it  designates 
a  single  person.  In  "  They  failed  to  win,"  the  pronoun 
they  refers  to  two  or  more  persons  and  is  therefore  in 
the  plural  number. 

The  change  in  the  form  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  by 
which  it  passes  from  the  singular  number  to  the  plural 
is  an  example  of  inflection  (see  §  4). 

136.  Most  nouns  form  the  plural  number  by  adding  -s  or  -es 
to  the  singular. 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

dog 

dogs 

horse 

horses 

cat 

cats 

carriage 

carriages 

boy 

boys 

judge 

judges 

girl 

girls 

lass 

lasses 

teacher 

teachers 

compass 

compasses 

general 

generals 

dish 

dishes 

pupil 

pupils 

stitch 

stitches 

The  -8  of  the  plural  often  has  the  sound  of  z. 


NUMBER.  79 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

In  the  following  extracts  find  all  the  plural  nouns. 
Give  the  singular  of  each. 

1.  The  stranger  who  would  form  a  correct  opinion  of  the 
English  character  must  not  confine  his  observations  to  the 
metropolis.  He  must  go  forth  into  the  country;  he  must 
sojourn  in  villages  and  hamlets ;  he  must  visit  castles,  villas, 
farmhouses,  villages ;  he  must  wander  through  parks  and  gar- 
dens, along  hedges  and  green  lanes ;  he  must  'oiter  about 
country  churches ;  attend  wakes  and  fairs,  and  other  rural  festi- 
vals ;  and  cope  with  the  people  in  all  their  conditions  and  all 
their  habits  and  humors.  —  Irving. 

2.  My  raft  was  now  strong  enough  to  bear  any  reasonable 
weight.  My  next  care  was  what  to  load  it  with,  and  how  to 
preserve  what  I  laid  upon  it  from  the  surf  of  the  sea.  But  I  was 
not  long  considering  this.  I  first  laid  all  the  plank  or  boards 
upon  it  that  I  could  get ;  and,  having  considered  well  what  I  most 
wanted,  I  first  got  three  of  the  seamen's  chests,  which  I  had 
broken  open  and  emptied,  and  lowered  them  down  upon  my  raft. 
The  first  of  these  I  filled  with  provisions,  —  bread,  rice,  three 
Dutch  cheeses,  five  pieces  of  dried  goat's  flesh,  which  we  lived 
much  upon,  and  a  little  remainder  of  European  corn  which  had 
been  laid  by  for  some  fowls  which  we  brought  to  sea  with  us ; 
but  the  fowls  were  killed.  There  had  been  some  barley  and 
wheat  together,  but,  to  my  great  disappointment,  I  found  after- 
wards that  the  rats  had  eaten  or  spoiled  it  all Defoe. 

II. 

Write  a  description  of  some  farm,  or  piece  of  woods, 
or  town,  or  village,  that  you  know  well. 

Pick  out  all  the  nouns  and  adjectives. 

Give  the  plural  of  every  noun  that  you  have  used  in 
the  singular  and  the  singular  of  every  plural  noun. 


80  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XXXII. 

GENITIVE   OR   POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

137.  If  we  wish  to  express,  in  the  shortest  possible 
way,  the  idea  "  a  dog  belonging-  to  John  "  or  "  a  dog 
possessed  or  owned  by  John/'  we  can  do  it  in  two 
words  :  — 

John's  dog. 

What  is  there  in  this  phrase  to  express  the  idea  of 
ownership?  The  answer  is,  of  course,  the  ending  '«, 
attached  to  the  noun  John.  For,  if  we  erase  the  ending 
's,  we  have  merely 

John  dog, 

which  certainly  does  not  express  possession. 

By  adding  's  to  John  we  have  not  formed  a  new 
noun  ;  we  have  simply  changed  the  form  of  the  noun 
John  by  adding  an  ending  which  denotes  possession. 

The  form  John's  is  said  to  be  the  genitive  case  of  the 
noun  John,  and  the  ending  's  is  called  a  genitive  ending. 

In  like  manner  the  first  noun  in  each  of  the  following 
phrases  is  in  the  genitive  case. 

the  king's  daughter  the  man's  dinner 

the  carpenter's  shop  the  horse's  head 

the  girl's  dolls  the  fish's  scales 

In  all  these  examples  observe  that  the  genitive  case 
denotes  possession.  If  the  genitive  ending  is  cut  off, 
the  idea  of  possession  disappears. 

The  genitive  case  is  also  called  the  possessive  case. 

138.  The  Genitive  Case  of  substantives  denotes  Possession. 


GEXITIYE    CASE.  81 

CHAPTEE    XXXIII. 

FORMS    OF   THE   GENITIVE 

139.  The  Genitive  Case  of  most  nouns  has,  in  the  singular 
number,  the  ending  's. 

the  man's  hat  Mary's  book 

the  woman's  veil  the  horse's  head 

the  dog's  bark  the  judge's  decision 

140.  (i)  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s  take  no  further  ending 
for  the  genitive.  In  writing,  however,  an  apostrophe  is  put 
after  the  s  to  indicate  the  genitive  case. 

the  boys'  father  (=  the  father  of  the  boys') 
the  girls'  mother  (=  the  mother  of  the  g 
the  horses'  heads  (=  the  heads  of  the  horse?') 

(2)  Plural  nouns  not  ending  in  s  take  's  in  the  genitive. 

the  men's  gloves  (=  the  gloves  of  the  men) 

women's  opinions  (=  the  opinions  of  women) 

the  children's  toys  (=  the  toys  belonging  to  the  children) 

The  apostrophe,  it  should  be  observed,  is  not  an  ending 
and  has  no  effect  on  pronunciation.  In  its  use  with 
the  genitive  it  is  merely  a  sign  employed  in  written  and 
printed  speech  to  distinguish  certain  forms  of  the  noun 
that  would  otherwise  look  exactly  alike.  These  forms 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

The  boys  were  playing  in  the  field.     [Boys  is  the  subject.] 
The  boy's  father  called  him.     [Genitive  singular.    Here  the  boy's 

father  =  the  father  of  the  boy.'] 

The   boys'   father   called   them.     [Genitive  plural.     Here  the 

boys'  father  =  the  father  of  the  boys.'] 


82  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Pick  out  all  the  genitives. 

1.  The  emperor's  palace  is  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  where  the 
two  great  streets  meet. 

2.  Oliver's  education  began  when  he  was  about  three  years  old. 

3.  Caesar  scorns  the  poet's  lays. 

4.  The  silverTight,  with  quivering  glance, 
Played  on  the  water's  still  expanse. 

5.  Here  on  this  beach  a  hundred  years  ago, 
Three  children  of  three  houses,  Annie  Lee, 
The  prettiest  little  damsel  in  the  port, 
And  Philip  Ray,  the  miller's  only  son, 
And  Enoch  Arden,  a  rough  sailor's  lad, 
Made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  played 
Among  the  waste  and  lumber  of  the  shore. 

6.  It  is  not  the  greatness  of  a  man's  means  that  makes  him 
independent,  so  much  as  the  smallness  of  his  wants. 

7.  In  faith  and  hope  the  world  will  disagree, 
But  all  mankind's  concern  is  charity. 

8.  The  jester's  speech  made  the  duke  laugh. 

9.  A  man's  nature  runs  either  to  herbs  or  weeds. 

II. 

Write  sentences  containing  the  genitive  singular  of 
each  of  the  following  nouns  :  — 

Boy,  girl,  dog,  cat,  John,  Mary,  Sarah,  William,  spider,  frog, 
elephant,  captain,  sailor,  soldier,  chieftain,  Shakspere,  Milton, 
Whittier,  baker,  manufacturer,  chimney-sweep. 

III. 

Write  sentences  containing  the  genitive  of  the  names 
of  twelve  persons  whom  you  know. 


GENITIVE   CASE.  83 

IV. 

Pick  out  all  the  genitives  and  tell  whether  each  is 
singular  or  plural.     Give  your  reasons. 

1.  The  monarch's  wrath  began  to  rise. 

2.  They  err  who  imagine  that  this  man's  courage  was  ferocity. 

3.  Two  years'  travel  in  distant  and  barbarous  countries  has 
accustomed  me  to  bear  privations. 

4.  Hark  !  hark!  the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings. 

5.  Portia  dressed  herself,  and  her  maid  in  men's  apparel. 

6.  He  waved  his  huntsman's  cap  on  high. 

7.  The  Porters'  visit  was  all  but  over. 

8.  The  ladies'  colds  kept  them  at  home  all  the  evening. 

9.  The  crags  repeat  the  ravens'  croak. 

10.  Farmer  Grove's  house  is  on  fire : 

11.  The  Major  paced  the  terrace  in  front  of  the  house  for  his 
two  hours'  constitutional  walk. 

Write  sentences  containing  the  genitive  plural  of  all 
the  common  nouns  in  Exercise  II. 

VI. 

Insert  the  apostrophe  in  the  proper  place  in  every 
word  that  needs  it. 

1.  The  mans  hair  was  black. 

2.  The  mens  courage  was  almost  gone. 

3.  The  spiders  web  was  too  weak  to  hold  the  flies. 

4.  The  whole  clan  bewailed  the  warriors  death. 

5.  The  soldiers  helmets  were  visible. 

6.  I  gave  him  a  months  notice. 

7.  Six  months  time  had  elapsed. 

8.  Womens  wages  are  lower  than  mens. 

9.  A  womans  wit  has  saved  many  a  stupid  man. 

10.  The  chieftains  sons  are  the  most  devoted  of  brothers. 


84 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 


GENITIVE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


141.  English  pronouns,  as  we  have  seen,  preserve 
more  forms  of  inflection  than  English  nouns.  Hence 
we  expect  to  find,  in  the  genitive  case  of  pronouns,  more 
irregularities  than  in  that  of  nouns. 

142.  The  nominative  and  the  genitive  forms,  singu- 
lar and  plural,  of  several  important  pronouns  are  as 
follows :  — 


fOMINATIVE 

Genitive 

Nominative             Genitive 

Singular 

Singular 

Plural                  Plural 

I 

my  or  mine 

we                   our  or  ours 

thou 

thy  or  thine 

you  or  ye            your  or  yours 

he 

his 

they                 their  or  theirs 

she 

her  or  hers 

they                 their  or  theirs 

it 

its 

they                 their  or  theirs 

My  book  is 

torn. 

This  box  is  mine. 

Our  dog  ran  away. 

The  cat  is  ours. 

Thy  ways  are  not  our  ways. 

Our  hearts  are  thine. 

Your  uncle 

is  a  merchant. 

The  top  is  yours. 

The  genitive  forms  in  the  table  above  are  often  called  possessive 
pronouns. 

You,  your,  and  yours  are  used  in  either  a  singular 
or  a  plural  sense.  In  form,  however,  they  are  in  the 
plural  number. 

The  forms  mine,  thine,  ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs,  are 
used  in  the  predicate. 

Make  sentences  containing  all  the  forms  of  pronouns 
given  in  §  142. 


OF-PH RASES.  85 

CHAPTER    XXXV. 

GENITIVE   REPLACED   BY  AN    OF-PHRASE. 

143.  Instead  of  using  the  genitive  form  to  indicate 
possession  we  may  often  use  the  preposition  of.     Thus, 

Genitive  Noun  with  of 

Man's  life  is  short.  The  life  of  man  is  short. 

Mr.  Smith's  property  is  hardly  The  property  of  Mr.  Smith  is 

safe.  hardly  safe. 

Shakspere's  plays  are  supreme.  The  plays    of  Shakspere   are 

supreme. 

In  these  sentences  the  noun  that  follows  of  is  called  its  object, 
and  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case  (see  §  104). 

144.  Possession  may  be  expressed  either  by  the  genitive  case 
or  by  a  phrase  consisting  of  the  preposition  of  and  its  object. 


EXERCISES. 


Make  twenty  sentences  each  containing  a  genitive. 
Let  them  express  your  own  thoughts. 

Replace  each  genitive  by  an  of-phrase,  and  note  the 
effect.     Is  the  change  an  improvement  or  not? 

II. 
Make  sentences  containing  either  the  genitive  of  each 
of  the  following  nouns  or  an   o/-phrase  replacing  the 
genitive.     Tell  the  grounds  of  your  choice. 

Boy,  girl,  mayor,  boys,  girls,  men,  man,  Chicago,  horse,  horses, 
Charles,  Mr.  Williams,  Boston,  friendship,  bandit,  pirate,  senator, 
Shakspere,  tree,  Longfellow,  house,  wisdom,  school,  chimney, 
grocer,  pansy,  rose,  lesson,  century,  bicycle,  Julius. 


86  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XXXVI. 

ANALYSIS.  — GENITIVE   AND   OF-PHRASE. 

145.  A  genitive  or  an  of-phrase  limits  the  substantive 
to  which  it  is  attached,  as  an  adjective  would  do. 

146.  In  analyzing  a  sentence,  therefore,  all  genitives 
and  most  of-phrases  are  regarded  as  adjective  modifiers  of 
the  substantives  to  which  they  belong.     Thus,  — 

The  patience  of  Job  |  is  proverbial. 

Joe's  strange  panic  |  lasted  for  several  days. 

In  the  first  sentence,  of  Job  is  an  adjective  modifier  oi  patience, 
the  subject  of  the  sentence.  It  limits  the  noun  by  specifying 
exactly  whose  patience  is  referred  to. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  subject  panic  has  two  adjective 
modifiers;  —  (1)  the  genitive  Joe's,  and  (2)  the  adjective  strange. 


EXERCISE. 

Analyze  the  sentences  below  according  to  the  plan 
on  page  75. 

Treat  the  genitives  and  of-phrases  as  adjective 
modifiers. 

1.  The  chieftain's  brow  darkened. 

2.  Quickly  sped  the  hours  of  that  happy  day. 

3.  Their  friends  have  abandoned  them. 

4.  Edison's  great  discovery  was  then  announced. 

5.  The  population  of  Chicago  is  increasing  rapidly. 
G.  The  captain  of  the  steamer  stood  on  the  bridge. 

7.  The  men's  last  hope  had  vanished. 

8.  Our  distress  was  soon  relieved. 

9.  The  branches  of  the  tree  droop  gracefully. 

10.  The  bird's  song  rang  out  merrily. 

11.  A  huntsman's  life  had  always  attracted  me. 


APPOSITION.  87 

CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

APPOSITION. 

147.  Examine  the  following  sentence  :  — 

Thompson,  the  fireman,  |  saved  the  man's  life. 

The  complete  subject  contains  two  nouns,  Thompson 
and  fireman,  both  referring  to  the  same  person.  The 
second  noun  describes  the  person  designated  by  the 
first.     Compare  — 

Pontiac,  the  Indian  chief,  |  died  in  1769. 
The  tree,  a  great  elm,  |  fell  last  night. 

Similarly,  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  the  com- 
plete predicate  contains  two  nouns  referring  to  the  same 
person  or  thing :  — 

Crusoe  |  rescued  Friday,  a  savage,  from  the  cannibals. 
Tbe  officer  |  lost  his  only  iceapon,  a  sword. 

In  such  sentences  the  second  noun  of  the  pair  is  said 
to  be  in  apposition  with  tiie  first,  and  is  called  an 
appositive. 

148.  The  principle  of  apposition  applies  to  pronouns 
as  well  as  to  nouns.     Thus,  — 

/,  the  king,  |  command  you. 
He  |  disobeys  me,  his  father. 

149.  When  two  substantives  denoting  the  same  person  or 
thing  stand  in  the  same  part  of  the  sentence  (subject  or  predicate) , 
and  the  second  describes  the  person  or  thing  designated  by  the 
first,  the  second  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  first  and  is 
called  an  Appositive. 


88  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  appositives. 

1.  Mr.  Jones,  the  ,   is  building  a  house  for  me. 

2.  Have  you  seen  Rover,  my ,  anywhere  ? 

3.  We  saw  animals  of   all   kinds    in  the  menagerie, 
, ,  and 


4.  Chapman,  the of  the  team,  broke  his  collar  bone. 

5.  My  new  kite, from  my  uncle,  is  caught  in  the  tree. 

6.  Washington,  the  of   the    United    States,   is  on  the 

Potomac. 

7.  Who  has  met  my  young  friend to-day  ? 

8.  Charles  I. of  England,  was  beheaded  in  1649. 

9.  Washington,  the of  his  country,  was  born  in  1732. 

10.  The  sultan  was  fond  of  tiger-hunting,  a  dangerous . 

II. 

Pick  out  the  appositives,  and  tell  to  what  noun  each 
is  attached. 

1.  An   Englishwoman,  the  wife  of  one  of   the  officers,  was 
sitting  on  the  battlements  with  her  child  in  her  arms. 

2.  I  went  to  visit  Mr.  Hobbes,  the  famous  philosopher. 

3.  We  were  hopeful  boys,  all  three  of  us. 

4.  Spring,  the  sweet  Spring,  is  the  year's  pleasant  king. 

5.  Then  forth  they  all  out  of  their  baskets  drew 
Great  store  of  flowers,  the  honor  of  the  field. 

6.  He  was  speedily  summoned  to  the  apartment  of  his  cap- 
tain, the  Lord  Crawford. 

7.  No  rude  sound  shall  reach  thine  ear, 
Armor's  clang  and  war-steed  champing. 

8.  And  thus  spake  on  that  ancient  man, 
The  bright-eyed  mariner. 

9.  There  lived  at  no  great  distance  from  this  stronghold  ;t 
farmer,  a  bold  and  stout  man,  whose  name  was  Binnock, 


ANALYSIS.  —APP0SIT1  VE.  89 

CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 

ANALYSIS. —THE   APPOSITIVE. 

150.  A  phrase  containing  an  appositive  is  called  an 
appositive  phrase. 

Sturt,  the  dauntless  explorer,  perished  in  the  desert. 

151.  An  appositive  or  appositive  phrase  is  an  adjective  modi- 
fier of  the  noun  to  which  it  is  attached. 

John,  the  miller,  was  doing  a  thriving  business. 

Here  the  appositive  miller  limits  the  subject  John  by 
defining  what  particular  John  is  referred  to.  It  is  not 
John  the  carpenter,  or  John  the  mason,  or  John  the 
machinist,  but  John  the  miller,  that  is  meant. 

An  appositive,  then,  limits  or  describes  a  noun  much 
as  an  adjective  would  do.     Thus,  — 

Appositive.  Adjective. 

Smith,  the  tanner,  is  growing  Young    Smith     is    growing 

rich.  rich. 

Jack,    the    sailor,    saved    the  Brave   Jack  saved  the  man 

man  from  drowning.  from  drowning. 

Mr.  Russell,  the  banker,   sails  Rich    Mr.  Russell   sails  for 

for  Europe  on  Friday.  Europe  on  Friday. 

152.  In  analyzing  a  sentence,  therefore,  any  appositive 
or  appositive  phrase  is  counted  as  an  adjective  modifier. 

153.  We  have  now  learned  to  recognize  four  kinds  of 
adjective  modifiers  :  (1)  an  adjective,  (2)  an  adjective  phrase, 
(3)  a  genitive,  (4)  an  appositive. 

An  adjective  in  the  appositive  position  is  often  called 
an  appositive  adjective.      Thus,  — 

The  coins,  large  and  small,  lay  on  the  table. 


90  THE    MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

TRANSITIVE   AND   INTRANSITIVE   VERBS. 
THE   DIRECT   OBJECT. 

154.  Compare  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences:  — 

The  dog  |  barked. 
Brutus  \' slabbed  Cassar. 

We  see  at  once  that  in  the  first  the  verb  barked  is  not 
followed  by  any  noun,  but  that  in  the  second  the  verb 
stabbed  is  followed  by  the  noun  Ccesar. 

Further,  we  see  that  the  verb  stabbed  really  needs  to 
be  followed  by  some  noun  or  pronoun  if  the  sentence 
is  to  be  complete.  Brutus  stabbed  would  at  once  seem 
to  us  unfinished,  and  would  suggest  the  question, 
"Whom  did  he  stab?"  For  it  is  impossible  to  stab 
without  stabbing  somebody  or  something. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  verb  barked  is  complete  in 
sense,  and  does  not  require  the  addition  of  a  noun. 
In  fact,  if  we  were  to  add  a  noun  to  the  sentence 
"  The  dog  barked,"  we  should  make  nonsense  out  of 
it.     A  dog  does  not  bark  anybody  or  bark  anything. 

Examining  the  noun  that  follows  stabbed  and  completes 
its  sense,  we  find  that  it  is  the  name  of  the  person 
(Caisar)  to  whom  the  act  expressed  by  the  verb  was 
done,  that  is,  it  designates  the  receiver  of  the  action. 

155.  Study  the  following  sentences :  — 

God  created  the  world. 
The  smith  made  an  anchor. 
"We  manufacture  shovels. 
The  earth  produces  grain. 


TRANSITIVE  AND  INTRANSITIVE    VERBS.         91 

Here  the  noun  that  follows  each  verb  to  complete  its 
meaning  designates  rather  that  which  the  action  produces 
than  that  to  which  the  action  is  done. 

156.  Some  verbs  that  express  action  may  be  directly  followed 
by  a  substantive  designating  either  the  receiver  or  the  product  of 
the  action.* 

Such  verbs  are  called  Transitive  Verbs. 

All  other  verbs  are  called  Intransitive  Verbs. 

A  Substantive  that  completes  the  meaning  of  a  Transitive 
Verb  by  designating  the  receiver  or  the  product  of  the  action  is 
called  the  Direct  Object  of  the  verb. 

A  Direct  Object  is  said  to  be  in  the  Objective  Case. 

An  Intransitive  Verb  cannot  have  a  Direct  Object. 

The  direct  object  is  often  called  the  object  complement. 

These  rules  are  illustrated  below :  — 

I.  Transitive  verbs  with  direct  object  (objective  case) : 

The  fox  seized  the  goose  in  his  mouth. 
Marshall  discovered  gold  in  California. 
The  King  of  England  assembled  a  powerful  army. 
He  rushed  on  danger  because  he  loved  it,  and  on  difficulties 
because  he  despised  them. 

II.  Intransitive  verbs  (no  object)  : 

Roses  bloom  in  the  garden. 

The  boat  lies  at  anchor. 

I  have  fished  all  day  long. 

The  messenger  was  running  at  the  top  of  his  speed. 

*  Observe  that  we  are  speaking  of  the  addition  of  a  noun  to  the  verb 
directly,  without  the  insertion  of  a  preposition  between  the  verb  and  the 
noun.  We  may  of  course  say  "  The  dog  barked  at  John  "  ;  but  here  the 
noun  John  does  not  immediately  follow  the  verb  barked,  for  at  comes 
between.  We  cannot  say  "  The  dog  barked  John,"  as  we  could  say  "  The 
dog  bit  John  "  or  "  Brutus  .slabbed  Caesar." 


92  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

157.  A  verb  which  is  transitive  in  one  of  its  senses  may  be 
intransitive  in  another.* 

Transitive  Intransitive 

The  girl  filled  the  cup  with  water.  The  girl's  eyes  filled  with  tears. 

The  fireman  ran  the  locomotive.  The  horse  ran. 

The  traveller  dried  his  coat.  The  water  dried  up. 

158.  A  transitive  verb  may  be  used  without  an  ob- 
ject expressed  or  even  distinctly  thought  of. 

Thus  we  may  say  "  The  horse  eats,"  as  well  as  "  The 
horse  eats  his  grain";  "The  soldier  fires,"  as  well  as 
"  The  soldier  fires  his  rifle  " ;  ';  The  man  writes,"  as 
well  as  "  The  man  writes  a  letter." 

In  such  cases  the  transitive  verb  is  said  to  be  used 
absolutely. 

159.  Many  transitive  verbs  may  be  used  absolutely,  —  that 
is,  merely  to  express  action  without  any  indication  of  the  direct 
object. 

It  is  easy  to  distinguish  between  a  transitive  verb 
used  absolutely  and  a  real  intransitive  verb.  In  the 
case  of  a  transitive  verb  used  absolutely,  one  can  always 
add  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  the  direct  object;  in  the 
case  of  a  real  intransitive  verb  this  is  never  possible. 
Thus,  — 

The  man  eats.  The  man  laughs. 

We  can  add  a  direct  object  Here  we  cannot  possibly  add 

(like    an    apple,   his   food,    his  a  noun  or  pronoun  as  the  direct 

dinner}  at  will.     Eats,  then,  in  object.     Laughs,  then,  is  a  real 

this  sentence,  is  not  an  intran-  intransitive  verb, 
sitive  verb  but  a  transitive  verb 
used  absolutely. 

*  §§  157-159  may  be  omitted  till  a  review  is  made. 


TRANSITIVE  AND  INTEANSITIVE   VERBS.         93 

EXERCISES. 

I. 

In  the  following  passages  tell  whether  the  verbs  are 
transitive  or  intransitive  and  pick  out  the  objects. 

1.  A  small  party  of  the  musketeers  followed  me. 

2.  These,  therefore,  I  can  pity. 

v    3.  Through  the  darkness  and  the  cold  we  flew. 

4.  Yet  I  insisted,  yet  you  answered  not. 

5.  The  enemy  made  frequent  and  desperate  sallies. 

6.  Fierce  passions  discompose  the  mind. 

7.  The  gallant  greyhounds  swiftly  ran. 

8.  The  Scots  killed  the  cattle  of  the  English. 

9.  Down  the  ashes  shower  like  rain. 

10.  While  Spain  built  up  her  empire  in  the  New  World,  the 
English  seamen  reaped  a  humbler  harvest  in  the  fisheries  of  New- 
foundland. 

II. 

In  several  pronouns  the  objective  case  has  a  special 
form,  different  from  that  of  the  nominative.     Thus, — 

/  have  a  knife.  He  is  my  friend. 

You  blame  me.  I  like  him. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  pronouns  in  the  objective  case. 

1.  They  found in  the  woods. 

2.  My  friend  asked to  dinner. 

3.  The  savage  dog  bit severely. 

4.  Our  teacher  has  sent home. 

5.  Their  uncle  visited last  week. 

6.  The  rain  drenched  in  spite  of  my  umbrella. 

7.  Mary's  brother  helped with  her  lesson. 

8.  Arthur's  book  interests very  much. 

9.  The  flood  drove from  our  farm. 

10.  A  boat  carried across  the  river, 


94  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XL. 

ANALYSIS.  — THE   DIRECT   OBJECT. 

160.  You  have  already  learned  to  analyze  a  sentence 
(1)  by  dividing  it  into  the  complete  subject  and  the  complete 
predicate,  and  (2)  by  pointing  out  the  adjective  modifiers  of 
the  subject  (adjectives,  adjective  phrases,  genitives,  or 
appositives)  and  the  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  predicate 
(adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases). 

161.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  studied  another 
element  of  the  complete  predicate,  namely,  the  direct 
object.  This  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  modifier  of  the 
predicate,  for  it  does  not  change  or  modify  the  meaning 
of  the  verb ;  it  completes  the  sense  of  the  verb  by  naming 
the  receiver  or  product  of  the  action. 

Accordingly,  in  analyzing  a  sentence  that  contains  a 
direct  object,  the  object  is  not  mentioned  among  the 
modifiers,  but  is  specially  named  by  itself.     Thus,  — 

The  clever  young  mechanic  earned  money  rapidly. 

.  This  is  a  declarative  sentence.  The  complete  subject  is  the 
clever  young  mechanic ;  the  complete  predicate  is  earned  money 
rapidly.  The  simple  subject  is  the  noun  mechanic;  the  simple 
predicate  is  the  verb  earned.  Mechanic  is  modified  by  the  adjec- 
tives clever  and  young.  Earned  is  modified  by  the  adverb  rapidly. 
Money  is  the  direct  object  of  the  transitive  verb  earned. 

162.  Analyze  the  following  sentences  according  to 
the  model :  — 

The  strolling  musician's  monkey  climbed  the  tree  with  agibty. 

A  good  man  loves  his  enemies. 

The  swift  runner  won  the  race  with  ease. 


ACTIVE  AND  PASSIVE    VOICE.  95 

CHAPTER   XLI. 

ACTIVE  AND   PASSIVE   VOICE.* 

163.   Compare  the  following  sentences :  — 

John  struck  Thomas. 
Thomas  was  struck  by  John. 

These  sentences  express  the  same  idea.  In  both  it 
is  John  who  gave  the  blow  and  Thomas  who  received 
it.     Yet  the  form  of  the  sentences  is  quite  different. 

(1)  In  the  first,  John  is  the  subject;  in  the  second, 
the  subject  is  Thomas. 

(2)  In  the  first,  the  subject  John  is  represented  as 
acting  in  some  way,  as  doing  something,  and  what  he  was 
doing  is  expressed  by  the  verb  struck.  In  the  second, 
the  subject  Thomas  is  not  represented  as  doing  any- 
thing ;  the  verb-phrase  was  struck  indicates,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  something  was  done  to  him  by  somebody  else. 

There  is,  then,  an  essential  difference  of  meaning 
between  the  predicate  struck  and  the  predicate  verb- 
phrase  was  struck,  and  this  difference  consists  in  the 
fact  that  struck  represents  its  subject  (John)  as  acting 
(as  doing  something),  and  ivas  struck  represents  its  sub- 
ject (Thomas)  as  acted  upon,  that  is,  as  receiving  an  action 
done  by  some  one  else. 

This  distinction  of  meaning  between  struck  and  was 
struck  is  called  a  distinction  of  voice.  Struck  is  said  to 
be  in  the  active  voice ;  ivas  struck,  in  the  passive  voice. 

*  An  elementary  study  of  the  passive  is  introduced  here  in  order  to 
complete  the  account  of  transitive  verbs  and  to  prepare  for  the  predicate 
nominative. 


96  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

164.  Voice  is  that  property  of  verbs  which  indicates  whether 
the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon, 

165.  There  are  two  voices :  the  Active  and  the  Passive. 

A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Active  Voice  when  it  represents  its 
subject  as  the  doer  of  an  act. 

A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  Voice  when  it  represents 
its  subject,  not  as  the  doer  of  an  action,  but  as  receiving  an  action. 

166.  Many  languages  have  special  forms  of  inflection 
for  the  passive  voice.  Thus,  in  Latin  amat  means  "  he 
loves  "  and  amaJtur  "  he  is  loved."  In  English,  how- 
ever, there  are  no  such  verb-forms,  and  the  idea  of  the 
passive  voice  is  therefore  expressed  by  means  of  verb- 
phrases. 

EXERCISE. 

Find  the  passive  verbs  (verb-phrases).  Mention  the 
subject  of  each  sentence. 

1.  My  command  was  promptly  obeyed. 

2.  One  of  the  men  who  robbed  me  was  taken. 

3.  Now  were  the  gates  of  the  city  broken  down  by  General 
Monk. 

4.  Suddenly,  while  I  gazed,  the  loud  crash  of  a   thousand 
cymbals  was  heard. 

5.  Judgment  is  forced  upon  us  by  experience. 

6.  Nature  is  often  hidden,  sometimes  overcome,  seldom  extin- 
guished. 

7.  Youth  is  always  delighted  with  applause. 

8.  The  hall  was  immediately  cleared  by  the  soldiery. 

9.  Just  before  midnight  the  castle  was  blown  up. 

10.  My  spirits  were  raised  by  the  rapid  motion  of  tbe  journey. 

11.  A  great  council  of  war  was  held  in  the  king's  quarters. 

12.  Many  consciences  were  awakened  ;  many  hard  hearts  were 
melted  into  tears  ;  many  a  penitent  confession  was  made. 


PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE.  97 

CHAPTER   XLII. 

PREDICATE   ADJECTIVE. 

167.  An  adjective  may  or  may  not  stand  in  the  same 
part  of  the  sentence  with  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which 
it  belongs.     Thus,  in 

The  black  hat  hangs  on  the  peg, 

the  adjective  black  and  its  noun  are  both  in  the  subject; 
in 

The  farmer  shot  the  mad  dog, 

the  adjective  and  its  noun  are  both  in  the  predicate.     On 
the  other  hand,  in 

The  dog  is  mad, 

the  adjective  mad  is  in  the  predicate  and  dog,  the  noun 
to  which  it  belongs,  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

168.  An  adjective  in  the  predicate  belonging  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun  in  the  subject  is  called  a  Predicate  Adjective. 

169.  The  number  of  verbs  that  may  be  followed  by 
a  predicate  adjective  is  limited.  The  commonest  are  is 
(teas  and  other  forms  of  the  copula),  become,  and  seem. 

Others  are  verbs  closely  resembling  become  or  seem     \ 
in  sense:   as, — grow,  turn,  prove,  appear,  look-,  et</ 

Examples  :  — 

Our  notions  upon  this  subject  may  perhaps  appear  extravagant. 
The  weather  proved  extremely  bad  the  whole  day. 
He  grew  careless  of  life,  and  wished  for  death. 
The  insolent  airs  of  the  stranger  became  every  moment  less 
supportable. 


98  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

After  look,  sound,  taste,  smell,  feel,  an  adjective  is  used 
to  describe  the  subject.     Thus,  — 

She  looks  beautiful.     [Not  :  looks  beautifully.] 
The  bells  sound  harsh.     [Not  :  sound  harshly.] 
My  luncheon  tastes  good.     [Not  :  tastes  well.] 
The  flowers  smell  sweet.     [Not  :  smell  sweetly.] 
Velvet  feels-smooth.     [Not  :  feels  smoothly.] 

An  adjective  phrase  (p.  68)    may  replace   a  predicate 
adjective. 

She  seemed  in  good  spirits.      [Compare  :   She  seemed  cheerful.] 


EXERCISE. 


>/' 


Pick  out  the  predicate  adjectives.     Show  that  each 
describes  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

1.  The  river  was  nowjuJLof  life  and  motion. 

2.  The  sentiments  of  the  hearers  were  various. 
*S3.  In  the  north  the  storm  grew  thick. 

,1     Soon  his  eyes  grew  brilliant. 

5.  Some  fortifications  still  remained  entire. 
-•■6.  He  lay  prostrate  on  the  ground. 
■^7.  The  evening  proved  fine. 

8.  Alfred  Burnham  has  become  penitent. 

9.  How  different  the  place  looked  now  ! 

10.  She  seemed  anxious  to  get  away  without  speaking. 

1 1.  Their  hearts  are  grown  desperate. 
*=T2.  The  captain  appeared  impatient. 

13.  He  began  to  look  a  little  less  stern  and  terrible. 
—14.  Many  houses  were  then  left  desolate. 

15.  Gertrude  remained  aghast  and  motionless. 
"-16.  He  stood  stubborn  and  rigid. 

17.  Vain  were  all  my  efforts. 
/  18.   These  threats  sounded  alarming. 


PREDICATE  NOMINATIVE.  99 

CHAPTER   XLIII. 

PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE. 

170.  A  predicate  adjective,  as  we  have  just  learned 
(p.  97),  may  be  added  to  the  intransitive  verbs  is,  seem, 
become,  and  some  others,  to  describe  or  define  the  sub- 
ject.    Thus,  — 

The  crag  is  steep. 

The  task  seemed  difficult. 

The  shouting  mob  became  silent. 

When  thus  added,  such  an  adjective  completes  the  sense 
of  the  verb.  Omit  the  adjectives  in  the  sentences  above, 
and  this  will  be  clear  to  you. 

171.  In  precisely  the  same  way,  the  sense  of  such 
intransitive  verbs  as  is,  seem,  and  become  may  be  com- 
pleted by  the  addition  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.     Thus,  — 

William  II.  is  emperor. 

Spartacus  was  chief  of  the  gladiators. 

Johnson  became  governor. 

I  am  your  friend. 

It  was  /.     You  are  he. 

Each  of  the  italicized  substantives  describes  or  defines 
the  subject,  much  as  the  adjectives  steep,  difficult,  and 
silent  do  in  §  170. 

Such  substantives  are  called  predicate  nominatives, 
because  they  stand  in  the  predicate,  and  because,  refer- 
ring as  they  do  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  sub- 
ject, they  are  of  course  in  the  nominative  case.* 

*  A  predicate  nominative  or  adjective  is  sometimes  called  an  attribute. 


100  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Make  ten  sentences  containing  a  predicate  nominative 
after  am,  is,  are,  was,  were,  has  been,  or  had  been. 

Select  the  subjects  of  your  sentences  from  the  follow- 
ing list  :  — 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Columbus,  elms,  ash,  carriage,  sword,  story, 
scissors,  history,  pencil,  ships,  Carlo,  football,  oranges,  peace, 
lemons,  war,  kindness,  verb,  noun,  pronoun. 

II. 

Fill  each  blank  with  a  predicate  nominative. 

/l.  Thomas  Smith  is  my 

2.  My  father's  name  is 


3.  A  noun  is  the of  a  person,  place,  or  thing. 

4.  A  pronoun  is  a used  instead  of  a  noun. 

5.  The  banana  is  a  delicious  — ■ — 

6.  The  boys  are  all . 

7.  Napoleon  was of  France. 

8.  Albert  has  been  your for  many  years. 

9.  We  had  been in  England. 

10.  My  birthday  present  will  be  a : 

11.  Fire  is  a  good but  a  bad 

12.  Hunger  is  the  best 

13.  Our  five  senses  are , -,  , >  and 

14.  My  favorite  flower  has  always  been  the 

15.  A  friend  in  need  is  a indeed. 

16.  Virtue  is  its  own 

17.  My  favorite  game  is 


18.  Milton  was  an  English . 

19.  "  Hiawatha  "  is  a of  Longfellow's. 

20.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  a  . 

21.  John  Adams  was  the  second of  the  United  States. 


PREDICATE  NOMINATIVE.  101 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 

DIRECT   OBJECT   AND   PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE 
DISTINGUISHED. 

172.  The  difference  between  the  direct  object  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb  and  a  predicate  nominative  after  an  intransitive 
verb  is  very  great ;  but  the  two  constructions  are  often 
confused  by  beginners. 

173.  The  only  resemblance  is  that  both  the  direct 
object  and  the  predicate  nominative  serve  to  complete  the 
sense  of  the  verbs  which  they  follow. 

Study  the  following  pair  of  sentences  :  — 

Coesar  conquers  the  general. 
Csesar  becomes  general. 

These  two  sentences  appear,  at  the  first  glance,  to 
resemble  each  other  very  strongly  in  their  make-up.  In 
both  Ccesar  is  the  subject,  and  in  both  the  verb  of  the 
predicate  is  immediately  followed  by  the  noun  general. 

Closer  examination,  however,  shows  that  the  construc- 
tion of  general  is  by  no  means  alike  in  the  two  sentences. 

(1)  In  the  first,  the  general  and  Ccesar  are  two  differ- 
ent persons.  Cwsar,  the  subject,  is  the  person  who  con- 
quers, and  the  general  is  the  person  whom  Csesar 
conquers.  General,  then,  is  the  direct  object  of  the 
transitive  verb  conquers  (see  §  156). 

(2)  In  the  second  sentence,  Ca>sar,  the  subject,  does 
not  do  anything  to  the  general.  On  the  contrary,  Ccesar 
and  the  general  are  one  and  the  same  person.  The  verb 
becomes,  then,  is  not  a  transitive  verb,  and  general  can- 
not be  its  object. 


102  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

The  difference  between  the  two  sentences  may  be 
stated  as  follows :  — 

In  the  First:  In  the  Second: 

1.  The  noun  in  the  predicate  1.  The  noun  in  the  predicate 
{general)  refers  to  a  person  (general)  refers  to  the  same 
different  from  the  subject  person  as  the  subject  (Ccesar). 
(Ccesar). 

2.  The  verb  of  the  predicate  2.  The  verb  of  the  predicate 
(conquered)  is  transitive.  (became)  is  intransitive. 

3.  The  noun  in  the  predicate  3.  The  noun  in  the  predicate 
(general)  is  the  direct  object  (general)  is  not  an  object  of 
of  the  verb  (conquered).  It  any  verb,  but  is  closely  as- 
names  the  person  to  whom  sociated  with  the  subject 
the  subject  does  something.  (Ccesar).  It  defines  or  ex- 
plains what  the  subject  is  or 
becomes. 

A  noun  in  the  construction  of  general  in  the  second 
sentence  is  called  a  predicate  nominative. 

174.  Some  passive  verbs  may  be  followed  by  a  predi- 
cate nominative.      Thus,  — 

Jackson  was  elected  president. 

The  boy  was  named  Philip. 

The  animals  are  called  kangaroos. 

The  Spaniard  was  chosen  ringleader. 

He  was  proclaimed  dictator. 

Phillips  had  been  appointed  secretary. 

175.  A  noun  or  pronoun  standing  in  the  predicate  after  an 
intransitive  or  passive  verb  and  referring  to  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  the  subject  must,  like  the  subject,  be  in  the  Nominative 
Case. 

Such  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  called  a  Predicate  Nominative. 


PREDICATE  NOMINATIVE.  103 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

In  the  following  sentences  pick  out  (1)  the  subjects, 
(2)  the  predicates,  (3)  the  predicate  nominatives. 

1.  He  is  an  honest  man  and  an  honest  writer. 

2.  The  Malay  has  been  a  fearful  enemy  for  months. 

3.  King  Malcolm  was  a  brave  and  wise  prince. 

4.  You  had  been  the  great   instrument  of   preserving   your 
country  from  foreign  and  domestic  ruin. 

5.  Still  he  continued  an  incorrigible  rascal. 

6.  Dewdrops  are  the  gems  of  morning, 
But  the  tears  of  mournful  eve. 

7.  While  still  very  young,  she  became  the  wife  of  a  Greek 
adventurer. 

8.  Every  instant  now  seemed  an  age. 

9.  Dr.  Daniel  Dove  was  a  perfect  doctor,  and  his  horse  Nobs 
was  a  perfect  horse. 

10.  Francis  the  First  stood  before  my  mind  the  abstract  and 
model  of  perfection  and  greatness. 

11.  The  name  of  Francis  Drake  became  the  terror  of  the 
Spanish  Indies. 

12.  Great  barkers  are  no  biters. 

13.  I  hope  she  will  prove  a  well-disposed  girl. 

14.  He  may  prove  a  troublesome  appendage  to  us. 

15.  His  bridge  was  only  loose  planks  laid  upon  large  trestles. 

16.  I  entered  the  town  a  candle-snuffer,  and  I  quitted  it  a 
hero  ! 

17.  A  very  complaisant  and  agreeable  companion  may,  and 
often  does,  prove  a  very  improper  and  a  very  dangerous 
friend. 

18.  Real  friendship  is  a  slow  grower. 

19.  He  became  a  friend  of  Mrs.  Wilberforce's. 

20.  My  friends  fall  around  me,  and  I  shall  be  left  a  lonely  tree 
before  I  am  withered. 


104  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

II. 
Pick  out  the  predicate  nominatives  and  the  direct 
objects.     Explain  the  difference  between  the  two  con- 
structions. 

1.  With  how  sad  steps,  0  Moon,  thou  climb'st  the  sky  I 

2.  The  landscape  was  a  forest  wide  and  bare. 

3.  Here  the  Albanian  proudly  treads  the  ground. 

4.  Wing  thy  flight  from  hence  on  the  morrow. 

5.  It  was  a  wild  and  strange  retreat 
As  e'er  was  trod  by  outlaw's  feet. 

6.  Honor  is  the  subject  of  my  story. 

7.  I  alone  became  their  prisoner. 

8.  A  strange  group  we  were. 

9.  The  mountain  mist  took  form  and  limb 
Of  noontide  hag  or  goblin  grim. 

10.  The    family    specialties    were    health,    good-humor,    and 

vivacity. 

11.  The  deep  war-drum's  sound  announced  the  close  of  day. 

12.  You  seem  a  sober  ancient  gentleman. 

13.  His  house,  his  home,  his  heritage,  his  lands, 
He  left  without  a  sigh. 

14.  On  the  tenth  day  of  June,  170:3,  a  boy  on  the  topmast 
discovered  land. 

15.  Have  you  turned  coward? 

16.  This  goodly  frame,  the  earth,  seems  to  me  a  sterile  prom- 
ontory • 

17.  This  southern  tempest  soon 

May.  change  its  quarter  with  the  changing  moon. 

18.  Mr.  Bletson  arose  and  paid  his  respects  to  Colonel  Everard 

19.  Escape  seemed  a  desperate  and  impossible  adventure. 

20.  Here  I  reign  king. 

21.  She  uttered  a  half-stifled  shriek. 

22.  The  sailors  joined  his  prayer  in  silent  thought. 

23.  We  have  been  lamenting  your  absence. 

24.  This  spark  will  prove  a  raging  fire. 


PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE.  105 

CHAPTER    XLV. 

PRONOUN   AS    PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE. 

176.  With  pronouns  the  difference  of  construction 
between  the  direct  object  and  the  predicate  nominative  may 
often  be  seen  clearly ;  for  the  nominative  form  of  some 
pronouns  differs  greatly  from  the  objective. 

Direct  Object  Predicate  Nominative 

He  loves  me.  It  is  /. 

Caesar  killed  him.  Caesar  was  he. 

The  teacher  praised  us.  It  was  we. 

The  general  blamed  them.       if  ever  there  were  happy  men,  the 

discharged  soldiers  were  they. 


EXERCISE. 


Errors  in  the  use  of  pronouns  are  common. 

The  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  are  cor- 
rectly used.  Pick  out  the  subjects  and  the  predicate 
noniinatives. 

1.  "Who's  there?"     "It'sJJ" 

2.  I  wish  to  see  Mr.  Smith.     Are  yovi  hfl.? 

3.  "  Do  vou  know  John  Anson?  "     "  Yes,  that  's  he  !  " 

4.  See  that  poor  fellow!     I  shouldn't  like  to  be  he. 

5.  "I  asked  to  see  your  sons.     Are  these  thijy?"     . 

"  Yes,  these  are  they.     Shall  I  tell  you  their  names  ?  " 

6.  "  It 's  she  !     There  she  is  !  "  cried  the  children  eagerly. 

7.  Yes,  it  was  he,_; — the  famous  admiral. 

8.  I  wish  it  had  n't  been  I  that  broke  the  window. 

9.  If  that  is  the  rich  Mrs.  Blank,  I  should  n't  like  to  be 

10.  "Who's  there?"     "It's  we."     "Who  are  you?" 

11.  The  best  grammarians  in  the  village  are  we  four  girls. 


106  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER   XLVI. 

ANALYSIS.— PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE   AND 
PREDICATE   ADJECTIVE. 

177.  In  analyzing  a  sentence  containing  a  predicate 
nominative  or  predicate  adjective,  the  predicate  nominative 
or  adjective  should,  like  the  direct  object  (p.  94),  be 
mentioned  by  itself.     Thus,  — 

The  injured  man  |  grew  rapidly  stronger. 

Here  the  complete  predicate  is  grew  rapidly  stronger. 
It  consists  of  (1)  the  simple  predicate  grew,  (2)  the 
predicate  adjective  stronger,  and  (3)  the  adverbial  modi- 
fier rapidly. 

178.  The  predicate  nominative  being  a  substantive, 
may,  like  the  subject,  have  adjective  modifiers  (see 
§  153) ;  the  predicate  adjective  may  be  modified  by  an 
adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase. 

These  modifiers  should  be  designated  in  making  an 
analysis  of  any  sentence  that  contains  them. 


EXERCISE. 


Analyze  sentences  1-4,  6-15  on  page  104  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  plan :  — 

(1)  Divide  each  sentence  into  the  complete  subject  and  the 
complete  predicate  ;  (2)  mention  the  simple  subject  and  predi- 
cate ;  (3)  mention  the  modifiers  of  the  subject  and  of  the  predi- 
cate ;  (4)  mention  the  direct  object,  the  predicate  nominative, 
or  the  predicate  adjective,  if  the  sentence  has  any  of  these  parts  ; 
(5)  mention  the  modifiers  of  the  direct  object,  etc. 


SIMPLE   AND    COMPOUND   SUBJECT.  107 

CHAPTER    XLVII. 

SIMPLE   SUBJECT   AND   COMPOUND   SUBJECT. 

179.  Compare  the  following  sentences:  — 

John  |  hunts  bears. 
Old  John  |  hunts  bears. 
John  of  Oregon  I  hunts  bears. 
John,  the  trapper,  |  hunts  bears. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  subject  is  John. 

In  the  first  sentence,  John  is  unmodified  and  stands 
alone.  In  the  second,  John  is  modified  by  the  adjective 
old;  in  the  third,  by  the  adjective  phrase  of  Oregon;  in 
the  fourth,  by  the  appositive  noun  trapper.  But  in  all 
four  the  simple  subject,  the  word  which  denotes  the  per- 
son referred  to,  is  the  single  noun  John. 

180.  Contrast,  however,  the  following  sentence :  — 

John  and  Thomas  |  hunt  bears. 

This  sentence  appears  to  have  two  distinct  subjects, 
John  and  Thomas,  connected  by  the  conjunction  and ; 
for  the  assertion  made  by  the  verb  hunt  is  just  as  true 
of  Thomas  as  of  John.  The  two  nouns,  then,  stand  in 
precisely  the  same  relation  to  the  predicate,  and  neither 
of-them  is  a  modifier  of  the  other. 

Similarly  each  of  the  following  sentences  appears  to 
have  two  or  more  distinct  subjects:  — 

My- brother  and  /  |  meet  every  week. 
Spears,  pikes,  and  axes  |  flash  in  air.    .  ■■  . 

A  crow,  rook,  or  raven  |  has  built  a  nest  in  one  of  the  young 
elm  trees. 


108  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

In  such  cases  the  various  distinct  subjects  of  the 
sentence,  taken  together,  are  regarded  as  making  up 
a  single  compound  subject. 

181.  The  Subject  of  a  sentence  may  be  Simple  or  Compound. 
A  Simple  Subject  consists  of  a  single  substantive. 

A  Compound  Subject  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  subjects, 
joined,  when  necessary,  by  conjunctions. 

182.  The  following  conjunctions  may  be  used  to  join 
the  members  of  a  compound  subject:  and  (both  .  .  .  and), 
or  (either  .  .  .  or;  whether  .  .  .  or),  nor  (neither  .  .  .  nor).* 

You  and  I  |  are  Americans. 

Captain  and  crew  I  were  alike  terrified. 

Both  gold  and  silver  |  were  found  in  the  mine. 

Either  you  or  Tom  |  broke  this  window. 

Either  oranges  or  lemons  |  make  up  the  cargo. 

Neither  bird  nor  beast  |  was  to  be  seen. 

183.  In  analysis,  a  compound  subject  should  be  sepa- 
rated into  the  simple  subjects  of  which  it  is  made  up, 
and  the  modifiers  of  each  should  be  mentioned. 


EXERCISES. 

l. 

Use  the  following  substantives,  in  pairs,  joined  by 
conjunctions,  as  the  compound  subjects  of  sentences  :  — 

Europe,  Asia;  boots,  shoes;  wood,  iron;  justice,  mercy;  fire, 
sword ;  goodness,  truth ;  masons,  carpenters ;  apples,  oranges  ; 
books,  pencil ;  father,  mother ;  gulfs,  bays ;  hills,  plains ;  maple, 
cedar;  thunder,  lightning. 

*  Either  .  .  .  or  and  other  conjunctions  thus  used  in  pairs  are  called 
correlative  conjunctions. 


SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND  SUBJECT.  109 

II. 

Divide  the  following  sentences  into  their  complete 
subjects  and  complete  predicates. 

Mention  the  several  substantives  that  make  up  each 
compound  subject,  and  tell  by  what  conjunctions  they 
are  joined. 

1.  Sorrow  and  sadness  sat  upon  every  face. 

2.  These  terrors  and  apprehensions  of  the  people  led  them 
into  a  thousand  weak,  foolish,  and  wicked  things. 

3.  Tears  lie  in  him,  and  consuming  fire. 

4.  Homer  and  Socrates  and  the  Christian  apostles  belong  to 
old  days. 

5.  My  childish  years  and  his  hasty  departure  prevented  me 
from  enjoying  the  full  benefit  of  his  lessons. 

6.  Everywhere  new  pleasures,  new  interests  awaited  me. 

7.  His  integrity  and  benevolence  are  equal  to  his  learning. 

8.  Both  saw  and  axo  were  plied  vigorously. 

9.  Neither  Turk  nor  Tartar  can  frighten  him. 

10.  The  duke  and  his  senators  left  the  court. 

11.  Either  Rome  or  Carthage  must  perish. 

12.  Her  varying  color,  her  clouded  brow,  her  thoughtful  yet 
wandering  eye,  so  different  from  the  usual  open,  bland  expression 
of  her  countenance,  plainly  indicated  the  state  of  her  feelings. 

13.  Moss  and  clay  and  leaves  combined 
To  fence  each  crevice  from  the  wind. 

14.  Tower  and  town  and  cottage 
Have  heard  the  trumpet's  blast. 

15.  The  horsemen  and  the  footmen 

Are  pouring  in  amain 
From  many  a  stately  market-place, 
From  many  a  fruitful  plain. 

16.  Groans  and  shrieks  filled  the  air. 

-—17.  The  walls  and  gates  of  the  town  were  strongly  guarded. 
__  18.  Chariots,  horses,  men,  were  huddled  together. 


110  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XLVIII. 

SIMPLE   PREDICATE   AND   COMPOUND   PREDICATE. 

184.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  learned  the  differ- 
ence between  a  simple  subject  and  a  compound  subject. 

The   predicate  of  a  sentence   may  likewise  be  either 
simple  or  compound. 

185.  A  Simple  Predicate  contains  but  one  verb.     Thus, — 

Fire  |  burns. 

The  soldiers  |  charged  up  the  hill. 

The  ship  |  was  driven  before  the  wind. 

Gunpowder  |  was  used  to  demolish  the  castle. 

186.  A  Compound  Predicate  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
predicates,  joined,  when  necessary,  by  conjunctions.     Thus,  — 

The  dog  |  ran  down  the  street  and  disappeared  from  sight. 
The  captain  \  addressed  his  soldiers  and  commended  their  bravery. 
Washington  |  was  born  in  1732  and  died  in  1799. 
The  lawyer  |  rose,  arranged  his  papers,  and  addressed  the  jury. 
...The  prisoner  |  neither  spoke  nor  moved. 

187.  The  conjunctions  mentioned  in  §  1 82  may  be  used 
to  join  the  members  of  a  compound  predicate.     Thus,  — 

The  wounded  man  |  said  nothing,  but  lay  still  with  closed  eyes. 
The  messenger  |  either  lost  the  money  or  spent  it.. 
The  captive  Indian  |  neither  spoke  nor  moved. 
The  man's  carelessness  |  both   disappointed  and  angered  his 
friends. 

188.  A  sentence  may  have  both  a  compound  subject 
and  a  compound  predicate.     Thus,  — 

The   American    and    the    Englishman  |  met   and   discussed  the 
question. 


Si  MPLE   A NJD    C 031P U  UXD  PIIELICA  TE.         Ill 
EXERCISES. 


Divide  the  sentences  into  their  complete  subjects  and 
complete  predicates. 

Mention  the  several  verbs  or  verb-phrases  that  make 
up  each  compound  predicate  and  tell  by  what  conjunc- 
tions they  are  joined. 

1.  The  wakeful  bloodhound  rose,  and  shook  his  hide. 

2.  They  clambered  tlirough  the  cavity,  and  began  to  go  down 
on  the  other  side. 

3.  During  this  time,  I  neither  saw  nor  heard  of  Alethe. 

4.  The  blackbird  amid  leafy  trees, 
-    The  lark  above  the  hill, 

Let  loose  their  carols  when  they  please, 
Are  quiet  when  they  will. 
"§'.'  She  immediately  scrambled  across  the  fence  and  walked 
away. 

6.  John  made  no  further  reply,  but  left  the  room  sullenly, 
whistling  as  he  went. 

7.  I  dressed  myself,  took  my  hat  and  gloves,  and  lingered  a 
little  in  the  room. 

8.  The  sun  had  just  risen  and,  from  the  summit  of  the  Arabian 
hills,  was  pouring  down  his  beams  into  that  vast  valley  of  waters. 

9.  They  kept  up  the  Cliristmas  carol,  sent  true-love  knots  on 
Valentine  morning,  ate  pancakes  on  Shrovetide,  showed  their  wit 
on  the  first  of  April,  and  religiously  cracked  nuts  on  Michaelmas 
eve. 

II. 

Use  the  following  verbs  and  verb-phrases  in  pairs  to 
make  the  compound  predicate  of  sentences  :  — 

Seek,  find ;  rose,  spoke ;  wrote,  sent ;  has  fished,  has  caught ; 
heard,  told  ;  tries,  fails. 


112  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Review  Exercises  n  and  in  on  page  62,  and  observe 
the  compound  subjects  and  predicates  that  you  make. 

II. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  as   on   page   106. 
Divide  each  compound  subject  or  predicate. 

1.  The  wind  was  either  too  light  or  blew  from  the  wrong 
quarter. 

2.  They  obey  their  guide,  and  are  happy. 

3.  The  stranger  neither  spoke  nor  read  English. 

4.  The  water  looked  muddy  and  tasted  brackish,  but  was 
eagerly  drunk  by  the  travellers. 

5.  The  watchman  was  sleepy,  but  struggled  against  his  drow- 
siness. 

6.  The  fox  was  caught,  but  escaped. 

7.  The  bear  growled  fiercely,  but  did  not  touch  the  boy. 

8.  The  sails  were  drying,  and  napped  lazily  against  the  mast. 

9.  The  ladies  and  gentlemen  were  inclined  to  sneer,  and  were 
giggling  audibly. 

10.  From  the  first,  Miss  Rice  was  interested  in  her  servant,  and 
encouraged  her  confidences. 

11.  He  jumped  into  the  gondola  and  was  carried  away  through 
the  silence  of  the  night. 

12.  She  grew  pale  herself  and  dropped  his  hand  suddenly. 

13.  Reuben  came   in   hurriedly  and  nodded  a  good-by  to  all 
of  us. 

14.  Gravely  he  greets  each  city  sire, 
Commends  each  pageant's  quaint  attire, 
Gives  to  the  dancers  thanks  aloud, 
And  smiles  and  nods  upon  the  crowd. 

15.  Flesh  and  blood  could  not  endure  such  hardships. 


CLAUSES. —COMPOUND  SENTENCES.  113 

CHAPTER    XLIX. 

CLAUSES .  —  COMPOUND  SENTENCES . 

189.  Examine  the  following  sentence :  — 
The  horse  reared  and  the  rider  was  thrown. 

This  sentence  consists  of  two  distinct  members,  (1) 
the  horse  reared,  (2)  the  rider  was  throum,  each  contain- 
ing a  subject  and  a  predicate.  These  two  members  are 
called  clauses.  They  are  joined  by  means  of  the  con- 
junction and. 

190.  A  Clause  is  a  group  of  words  that  forms  part  of  a  sen- 
tence and  that  contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

A  clause  differs  from  a  phrase  in  that  it  contains  a 
subject  and  a  predicate,  as  a  phrase  does  not. 

191.  Each  of  the  following  sentences  consists,  like 
the  first  example,  of  two  distinct  clauses,  joined  together 
by  a  conjunction. 

The  dog  barked  |  and  |  the  burglar  decamped.     [Declarative.] 
Shall  I  descend,  |  and  |  will  you  give  me  leave  ?     [Interrogative.] 
Listen  carefully  |  and  |  take  notes.     [Imperative.] 

If  we  study  the  structure  of  these  sentences,  we  ob- 
serve that  each  consists  of  two  independent  clauses,  that  is, 
of  two  separate  and  distinct  assertions,  or  questions,  or 
commands,  either  of  which  might  stand  by  itself  as  a  com- 
plete sentence.* 

*  We  may  test  this  by  omitting  and :  thus, — 

The  dog  barked.    The  burglar  decamped. 
Shall  I  descend ?    Will  you  give  me  leave? 
Listen  carefully.     Take  notes. 


114  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE: 

Neither  clause  can  be  said  to  be  more  important  than 
the  other.  Hence  both  are  called  coordinate  clauses,  that 
is,  —  clauses  of  the  same  "order"  or  rank. 

A  sentence  made  up  of  coordinate  clauses  is  called  a 
compound  sentence.  - 

192.  The  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  are  not 
always  connected  by  conjunctions.     Thus,  — 

The  whip  cracked,  |  the  coach  started,  |  and  we  were  on  our 
way  to  Paris. 

193.  A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  coordinate 
clauses,  which  may  or  may  not  be  joined  by  means  of  conjunctions. 

194.  The  following  conjunctions  are  used  in  forming 
compound  sentences :  and  (both  .  .  .  and),  or  (either  .  .  . 
or),  nor  (neither  .  .  .  nor),  but,  for. 


EXERCISE. 


Separate  these  compound  sentences  into  the  clauses  of 
which  they  are  composed.  Mention  the  conjunctions 
that  connect  the  clauses,  if  you  find  any. 

1.  Summer  was  now  coming  on  with  hasty  steps,  and  my 
seventeenth  birthday  was  fast  approaching. 

2.  The  night  had  been  heavy  and  lowering,  but  towards  the 
morning  it  had  changed  to  a  slight  frost,  and  the  ground  and  the 
trees  were  now  covered  with  rime. 

3.  The  war-pipes  ceased,  but  lake  and  hill 
Were  busy  with  their  echoes  still. 

4.  St.  Agnes'  Eve  —  ah,  bitter  chill  it  was  ! 
The  owl,  for  all  "his  feathers,  was  a-cold ; 

The  hare  limped  trembling  through  the  frozen  grass, 
And  silent  was  the  flock  in  woolly  fold. 


COMPLEX  SENTENCES.  115 


CHAPTER    L. 

COMPLEX   SENTENCES.  — ADVERBIAL   CLAUSES. 

:;.-:  195.    Compare  the  following  sentences  :  - 

The  chief  arose  at  daybreak. 

The  chief  arose  when  day  damned. 

These  two  sentences  express  precisely  the  same  idea. 
They  differ  only  in  their  way  of  expressing  it. 
, .  In  the  first,  the  predicate  arose  is  modified  by  the 
adverbial  phrase  at  daybreak,  which  is  equivalent  to  an 
adverb  of  time. 

In  the  second,  this  adverbial  modifier  is  replaced  by 
when  day  datvned,  —  a  group  of  words  which  we  recog- 
nize as  a  clause,  since  it  contains  a  subject  (day)  and  a 
predicate  (dawned). 

The  sentence  then  consists  of  two  clauses.  The  first 
(the  chief  arose)  is  independent,  —  that  is,  it  could  stand 
alone  as  a  complete  sentence.  This  is  called  the  main 
clause,  since  it  makes  the  main  statement  which  the  sen- 
tence is  intended  to  express. 

"The  second  clause  (when  day  dawned)  is  a  mere  ad- 
verbial modifier  of  the  predicate  of  the  main  clause 
(arose),  and  cannot  stand  by  itself  as  a  complete  sen- 
tence.    Hence  it  is  called  a  dependent  or  subordinate  clause. 

A  sentence  made  up  in  this  manner  is  called  a  complex 
sentence. 

196.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  Clauses, 
at  least  one  of  which  is  Subordinate. 

197.  Separate  each  of  the  following  complex  sentences 
into  the  main  clause  and  the  subordinate  clause :  — 


116  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

War  was  declared  with  Spain  while  McKinley  was  president. 
I  will  send  you  the  moneyj  when  I  get  my  pay. 
Before  the  firemen  arrived,  the  building  fell. 
He  sprang  to  his  feet  as  he  spoke. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  subordinate  clause  is  an 
adverbial  modifier  of  the  predicate.  See  if  you  can  replace 
it  by  an  adverbial  phrase. 

198.  A  subordinate  clause  that  serves  as  an  adverbial  modi- 
fier is  called  an  Adverbial  Clause. 

199.  Adverbial  clauses  may  be  introduced  by  adverbs 
of  place,  time,  or  manner :  as,  —  where,  whither,  whence, 
when,  while,  before,  after,  until,  hoiv,  as. 

200.  Adverbial  clauses  are  often  introduced  by  the 
conjunctions  because,  though,  although,  if,  that  (in  order 
that,  so  that),  etc. 

These  are  called  subordinate  conjunctions  because  they 
join  the  subordinate  clause  to  the  main  clause. 


EXERCISE. 


Separate  each  complex  sentence  into  the  main  and 
the  subordinate  clause.  Mention  the  adverbs  or  con- 
junctions that  connect  the  clauses. 

1.  King  Robert  was  silent  when  he  heard  this  story. 

2.  He  laughed  till  the  tears  ran  down  his  face. 

3.  When    the   Arabs   saw  themselves   out    of   danger,   they 
slackened  their  pace. 

4.  We  advance  in  freedom  as  we  advance  in  years. 

5.  When  I  came  back  I  resolved  to  settle  in  London. 

6.  As  he  approached  the  stream,  his  heart  began  to  thump. 

7.  He  struggled  on,  though  he  was  very  tired. 

8.  I  consent  because  you  wish  it. 


RELATIVE  PEONOUNH.  117 

CHAPTER    LI. 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

201.  Examine  the  following  complex  sentence :  — 

The  officer  shot  the  soldier  who  deserted. 

The  two  clauses  are  :  — 

(1)  the  main  statement,  "  The  officer  shot  the  soldier" ; 

(2)  the  subordinate  clause,  kt  who  deserted." 

If  we  examine  this  subordinate  clause,  we  see  that  its 
subject  who  is  a  pronoun,  for  it  serves  to  take  the  place 
of  a  noun  ;  that  is,  it  designates  the  soldier  without  nam- 
ing him.  The  pronoun  ivho,  then,  is  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause,  and  at  the  same  time  connects  the 
subordinate  with  the  main  clause. 

The  method  by  which  the  pronoun  ivho  connects  the 
subordinate  clause  with  the  main  clause  is  by  attaching 
itself  directly  in  meaning  to  the  noun  soldier. 

In  other  words,  who  is  a  pronoun  which  serves  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  refers 
definitely  back  to  a  noun  in  another  clause.  On  account 
of  this  referring  backward,  who  is  called  a  relative  pronoun. 

202.  Relative  Pronouns  connect  dependent  clauses  with  main 
clauses  by  referring  directly  to  a  substantive  in  the  main  clause. 

The  substantive  to  which  a  relative  pronoun  refers  is  called  its 
Antecedent. 

203.  Other  relative  pronouns  are  whose,  whom,  which,  that. 

Harry  has  lost  a  knife  tehich  belongs  to  me. 
I  have  a  friend  ivhose  name  is  Arthur. 
The  girl  whom  you  saw  is  my  sister. 
Tell  me  the  news  that  you  have  heard. 


118  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES, 
i. 

Separate  each  sentence  in  §  203  into  the  main  and 
the  subordinate  clause,  and  give  the  subject  and  the 
predicate  of  each  clause. 

In  these  sentences  the  relative  pronoun  is  sometimes 
a  subject,  sometimes  an  object,  and  once  a  genitive. 
See  if  you  can  distinguish. 

. 

II. 


Fill  each  blank  with  a  relative  pronoun,  and  mention 
its  antecedent. 

1.  The  house stands  yonder  belongs  to  Colonel  Carton;. 

2.  Are  you  the  man saved  my  daughter  from  drowning? 

3.  The  sailor's  wife  gazed  at  the  stately  ship was  tak- 
ing her  husband  away  from  her. 

4.  A  young  farmer,  name  was  Judkins,-was  the  first  to 

enlist. 

5.  Nothing you  can  do  will  help  me. 

6.  The  horses belong  to  the  squire  are  famous  trotters. 

7.  James    Adams    is   the    strongest   man I   have    ever 

seen. 

8.  My  friend, we  had  overtaken  on  his  way  down  town, 

greeted  us  cheerfully. 

9.  Behold  the  man the  king  delighteth  to  honor ! 

10.  That  is  the  captain ship  was  wrecked  last  December. 

III. 
.Pick    out    each   relative    pronoun    in    the    following 
sentences,  and  mention  its  antecedent. 

Divide  each  sentence  into  its  clauses,  —  main  and 
subordinate,  —  and  give  the  subject  and  the  predicate 
of  each  clause. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  119 

1.  A  sharp  rattle  was  heard  on  the  window,  which  made  the 
children  jump. 

2.  The  small  torch  that  he  held  sent  forth  a  radiance  by 
which  suddenly  the  whole  surface  of  the  desert  was  illuminated. 

3.  He  that  has  most  time  has  none  to  lose. 

4.  Gray  rocks  peeped  from  amidst  the  lichens  and  creeping 
plants  which  covered  them,  as  with  a  garment  of  many  colors. 

5.  The  enclosed  fields,  which  were  generally  forty  feet  square, 
resembled  so  many  beds  of  flowers. 

6.  They  that  reverence  too  much  old  times  are  but  a  scorn  to 
the  new. 

7.  The  morning  came  which  was  to  launch  me  into  the 
world,  and  from  which  my  whole  succeeding  life  has,  in  many 
important  points,  taken  its  coloring. 

8.  Ten  guineas,  added  to  about  two  which  I  had  remaining 
from  my  pocket  money,  seemed  to  me  sufficient  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time. 

9.  lie  |g  the  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free. 

10.  There  was  one  philosopher  who  chose  to  live  in  a  tub. 

11.  Conquerors  are  a  class  of  men  with  whom,  for  the  most 
part,  the  world  could  well  dispense. 

12.  The  light  came  from  a  lamp  that  burned  brightly :on.  the 

table.  ::'....  :'.:..'. 

13.  The  sluggish  stream  through  which  we    moved   yielded 
sullenly  to  the  oar. 

-     14.  The  place  from  which  the   light   proceeded,  was  a  small 
chapel. 

15.  The  warriors  went  into   battle   clad   in    complete    armor, 
which  covered  them  from  top  to  toe. 

16.  She  seemed  as  happy  as  a  wave 
That  dances  on  the  sea. 

17.  He  sang  out  a  long,  loud,  and  canorous  peal  of  laughter, 
that  might  have  wakened  the  Seven  Sleepers. 

18.  Thou  hadst  a  voice  whose  sound  was  like  the  sea. 

19.  Many  of  Douglas's  followers  were  slain   in   the   battle- in 
which   he  himself  fell. 


120  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LII. 

ADJECTIVE   CLAUSES. 

204.    Examine  the  following  sentences  :  — 

A  courageous  man  will  not  desert  his  friends. 
A  man  of  courage  will  not  desert  his  friends. 
A  man  who  has  courage  will  not  desert  his  friends. 

These  three  sentences  express  precisely  the  same  idea, 
but  in  different  ways. 

In  the  first  sentence  we  find  the  descriptive  adjective 
courageous,  belonging  to  the  noun  man. 

In  the  second,  the  adjective  courageous  is  replaced  by 
the  adjective  phrase  of  courage,  also  belonging  to  man. 

In  the  third,  the  adjective  is  replaced  by  who  has 
courage.  This  group  of  words  we  recognize  as  a  clause 
(not  a  phrase),  since  it  consists  of  a  subject  (the  relative 
pronoun  who)  and  a  predicate  (has  courage). 

The  clause  who  has  courage,  then,  is  closely  attached 
to  the  noun  man  and  has  the  force  of  an  adjective. 
Such  clauses  are  called  adjective  clauses. 

205.  The  following  examples  illustrate  the  nature 
and  use  of  adjective  clauses  and  adjectives  :  — 

Simple  Sentence,  with  Adjec-  Complex  Sentence,  with  Ad- 
tive  or  Adjective  Phrase  jective  Clause 

A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  A  friend  who  helps  you  in  time 
indeed.  of  need  is  a  real  friend. 

A  sleeping  fox  catches  no  poul-  A  fox  that  does  not  keep  aicake 
try.  catches  no  poultry. 

A  bad-tempered  man  is  a  nui-  A  man  who  loses  his  temper  con- 
sance,  tinually  is  a  nuisance. 


ADJECTIVE    CLAUSES.  121 

206.  Most  adjective  clauses  are  relative  clauses ;  that 
is,  clauses  introduced  either  by  relative  pronouns,  or  by 
relative  adverbs  of  place  or  time  (where,  when,  etc). 

The  men,  who  were  Jive  in  number,  skulked  along  in  the  shadow 
of  the  hedge. 

The  fire  which  the  boys  had  kindled  escaped  from  their  control. 
The  hat  that  lies  on  the  floor  belongs  to  me. 
The  town  where  this  robbery  occurred  was  called  Northampton. 
The  time  when  this  happened  was  six  o'clock. 

207.  The  substantive  described,  limited,  or  defined 
by  a  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  is  always 
the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun. 


EXERCISE. 


Find  the  adjective  clauses. 

What  substantive  does  each  describe  or  limit? 

1.  The  careless   messenger  lost  the  letter  which  had  been 
intrusted  to  him.  tj 

2.  The  merchant  gave  the  sailor  who  rescued  him  a  thousand 
dollars. 

3.  The  officer  selected  seven  men,  veterans  whose  courage 
had  often  been  tested. 

4.  My  travelling  companion  was  an  old  gentleman  whom  1 
had  met  in  Paris. 

5.  The  castle  where  I  was  born  lies  in  ruins. 

6.  Alas !  the  spring  which  had  watered  this  oasis  was  dried  up. 

7.  The  time  that  you  have  wasted  would  have  made  an  indus- 
trious man  rich. 

8.  A  strange  fish,  which  had  wings,  was  this  day  captured 
by  the  seamen. 

9.  This  happened  at  a  time  when  prices  were  high. 


122  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE, 

CHAPTER    LIU. 

NOUN   CLAUSES. 

208.  A  Subordinate  Clause  may  be  used  as  a  Substantive. 
Compare  the  sentences  that  follow :  — 

Failure  |  is  impossible. 

That  we  should  fail  |  is  impossible. 

These  two  sentences  express  the  same  thought  in 
different  words. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  subject  is  the  noun  failure ■. 

In  the  second,  the  noun  failure  is  replaced  by  a  group 
of  words,  that  we  should  fail,  which  we  recognize  as  a 
clause,  since  it  contains  a  subject  (we)  and  a  predicate 
(should  fail).  This  clause  is  now  the  subject  of  the 
sentence. 

209.  Compare  the  sentences  in  the  columns  below  :  — 

Noun  as  Subject  Clause  as  Subject" 

His  ingratitude  cut  me  to  the  That  he  should   show  such    in- 

heart.  gratitude  cut  me  to  the  heart. 

The  yello'wne.ss  of  gold  needs  That   gold    is   yellow  needs    no. 

no  proof.  proof- 

His  friendship   for  nie  shows  That  he  is  my  friend  shows  itself. 

•  itself  in  his  actions.  in  his  actions. 

210.  Substantive  clauses  are  very  commonly  intro- 
duced by  that,  which  in  this  use  is  a  subordinate  conjunction. 

They  are  used  to  express  a  variety  of  id^as,  which 
will  be  particularly  studied  in  later  chapters. 

211.  Substantive  clauses  may  be  used  in  other  noun 
constructions  besides  that  of  the.  subject. 


NOUN    CLAUSES.  123 

Thus  in  examples  1  and  2  below,  the  noun  clause  is 
the  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb ;  in  3  and  4  it  is  a 
predicate  nominative ;  in  5  and  6  it  is  an  appositive. 

1.  The  sailor  saw  that  the  ship  was  sinking. 

2.  My  father  wished  that  this  tree  should  be  cut  down. 

3.  My  orders  are  that  we  should  set  out  at  daybreak. 

4.  My  hope  was  that  some  ship  might  be  sighted. 

5.  The  thought  that  help  was  near  kept  our  spirits  up. 

6.  The  Council  issued  an  order  that  the  troops  should  disband. 


EXERCISES. 


I. 

Make  sentences  showing  the  use  of  nouns  as  subjects, 
direct  objects  (p.  91),  predicate  nominatives  (p.  99),  and 
appositives  (p.  87). 

ii. 

Find  the  noun  clauses.  Tell  whether  each  is  subject, 
direct  object,  predicate  nominative,  or  appositive. 

1.  That  some  mistake  had  occurred  was  evident. 

2.  That  republics  are  ungrateful  is  a  common  saying. 

3.  That  fire  burns  is  one  of  the  first  lessons  of  childhood. 

4.  That  the  fever  was  spreading  became  only  too  apparent. 

5.  I  know  that  he  has  received  a  letter. 

6.  I  wish  that  you  would  study  harder. 

7.  From  that  moment  I  resolved  that  I  would  stay  in  the 
town. 

8.  Bassanio  confessed  to  Portia  that  he  had  no  fortune. 

9.  My  opinion  is  that  this  story  is  false. 

10.  His  decision  was  that  the  castle  should  be  surrendered. 

11.  The  saying  that  the  third  time  never  fails  is  old. 

12.  The  lesson  that  work  is  necessary  is  learned  early. 


124  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

III. 

Tell  whether  each  sentence  is  compound  or  complex. 
Separate  it  into  its  clauses. 

Point  out  the  adjective,  the  adverbial,  and  the  noun 
clauses. 

1.  All  the  birds  began  tasing  ■when  the  sun  rose. 

2.  The  house  stands  where  three  roads  meet. 

3.  He  worked  hard  all  his  life  that  he  might  enjoy  leisure 
in  his  old  age. 

4.  The  earth  caved  in  upon  t he  miner  so  that  he  was  com- 
pletely buried. 

5.  I  will  give  you  ten  cents  if  you  will  hold  my  horse. 

6.  The  wanderer  trudged  on,  though  he  was  very  tired. 

7.  The  only  obstacle  to  our  sailing  was  that  we  had  not  yet 
completed  our  complement  of  men. 

8.  Spring    had  come  again,  after  a  long,  wet  winter,   and 
every  orchard-hollow  blushed  once  more  with  apple-blossoms. 

v    9.  A  great  stone  that  I  happened  to  find  by  the  seashore 
served  me  for  an  anchor. 

10.  If  you  will  go  over,  I  will  follow  you. 

11.  He  would  give  the  most  impalatable  advice,  if  need  were. 
^  12.  The  first  thing  that  made  its  appearance  was  an  enormous 

ham. 

13.  As  Pen  followed  his  companion  up  the  creaking  old  stair, 
his  knees  trembled  under  him. 

14.  Two  old  ladies  in  black  came  out  of  the  old-fashioned 
garden  ;  they  walked  towards  a  seat  and  sat  down  in  the  autumn 
landscape. 

15.  The  brigand  drew  a  stiletto  and  rushed  upon  his  adver- 
sary. The  man  eluded  the  blow  and  defended  himself  with  his 
pistol,  which  had  a  spring  bayonet. 

16.  In  the  midst  of  this  strait,  and  hard  by  a  group  of  rocks 
called  the  Hen  and  Chickens,  there  lay  the  wreck  of  a  vessel  which 
had  been  entangled  in  the  whirlpools  and  stranded  during  a  storm. 


PARTS    OF  SPEECH.  125 

CHAPTER    LIV. 

THE  SAME  WORD  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

212.  Words,  as  we  learned  at  the  outset,  are  merely 
signs  of  ideas :  that  is,  words  stand  for  thoughts.  You 
have  also  learned  into  what  parts  of  speech  words  are 
divided. 

Naturally,  the  same  word  may  stand  for  or  express 
different  kinds  of  thought  under  different  circumstances.* 

213.  The  same  word  may  be  sometimes  one  part  of  speech, 
sometimes  another. 

The  meaning  of  a  word  in  the  sentence  determines  to  what 
part  of  speech  it  belongs. 

Verb  Noun 

We  always  walk  to  school.  Tom  and  I  took  a  walk. 

Tom  and  I  ride  almost  every  day.  The   long   rule  was  very  tire- 
some. 

You  attempt  to  do  too  much.  The  boy  made  a  daring  attempt. 

Anchor  the  boat  near  the  shore.  The  anchor  will  not  hold. 

The  farmer  ploughs  with  a  yoke  The  ploughs  stood  idle  in  the 

of  oxen.  furrows. 

The  italicized  words  in  the  left-hand  column  are  verbs ; 
for  they  not  only  express  action  but  also  assert 
something. 

The  italicized  words  in  the  right-hand  column  make 
no  assertion :  they  simply  call  the  action  or  the  imple- 
ment by  its  name.     They  are  therefore  nouns. 

214.  Verbs  and  Nouns  often  have  the  same  form  in  English ; 
but  they  may  always  be  distinguished  by  their  different  use. 

*  In  such  cases  the  words  are  often  different  in  origin  though  identical 
in  form.     This  distinction,  however,  is  not  important  for  beginners. 


126  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Tell  whether  each  of  the  italicized  words  is  a  noun  or 
a  verb.     Give  your  reasons. 

1.  We  sit  in  the  warm  shade  and  feel  right  well 
How  the  sap  creeps  up  and  the  blossoms  swell. 

2.  Like  the  swell  of  some  sweet  tune 
Morning  rises  into  noon, 

May  glides  onward  into  June. 

3.  Use  your  chances  while  they  last. 

4.  Shoemaker,  stick  to  your  last. 

5.  Down  came  squirrel,  eager  for  his  fare, 
Down  came  bonny  blackbird,  I  declare  I 
Little  Bell  gave  each  his  honest  share. 

6.  Not  what  we  give,  but  what  we  share, 
For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare. 

7.  Heaped  in  the  hollows  of  the  grove,  the  autumn  leaves  lie 

dead, 
They  rustle  to  the  eddying  gust  and  to  the  rabbit's  tread. 

8.  All  that  tread  the  globe 
Are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 
That  slumber  in  its  bosom. 

9.  But  what  shall  I  gain  by  young  Arthur's  fall  ? 
10.  The  woods  decay,  the  woods  decay  and  fall. 

II. 

Lse  these  words  in  sentences,  (1)  as  nouns,  (2)  as 
verbs  :  — 

Walk,  use,  order,  alarm,  match,  fish,  fall,  fire,  light,  taste,  faint, 
pity,  row,  crowd,  wrong,  lest,  plant,  reply,  ink,  frame,  frown, 
dawn,  studies,  pastures,  comforts,  struggles. 


NOUNS   AND   ADJECTIVES.  127 

CHAPTER    LV. 

NOUNS    AND   ADJECTIVES. 

215.  The  same  word  may  often  be  used  either  as  an 
adjective  or  as  a  noun. 

The  sense  determines  in  every  instance. 

216.  Compare  the  italicized  words  below :  — 

Nouns  Adjectives 

Iron  will  float  in  mercury.  An  iron  anchor  will  hold   the 

ship. 
The  miner  digs  for  gold.  My  uncle  gave  me  a  gold  watch. 

Leather  is  made  of  the  skins  of      The    ancients   commonly  used 

animals.  leather  bottles. 

The  street  was  paved  with  stone.      The  beggar  sat   down   on  the 

stone  floor. 
A  brick  fell  on  the  mason's  head.      The  boy  fell  down  on  the  brick 

sidewalk. 
Smith  is  a  millionaire.  The  millionaire  banker  built  a 

splendid  house. 
Tom  is  going  to  college.  Tom's    college    studies  are  too 

hard  for  him. 

The  italicized  nouns  in  the  first  column  are  used  in  the 
second  column  to  describe  objects,  that  is,  as  adjectives. 

217.  On  the  other  hand,  words  that  are  usually  adjec- 
tives may  be  used  to  name  persons  or  things.  They  are 
then  nouns.     Thus,  — 

Adjectives  Nouns 

Old  men  can  give  advice.  The  old  should  be  our  advisers. 

Harry  was  a  cautious  rider.  The    cautious    are    not    always 

cowards. 
Brave  men  are  common.  Toll  for  the  brave  ! 


128  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 

i. 

Tell  whether  each  of  the  italicized  words  is  a  noun 
or  an  adjective.     Give  your  reasons. 

1.  God  gives  sleep  to  the  bad  in  order  that  the  good  may  be 
undisturbed. 

2.  Is  thy  news  good  or  bad? 

3.  She  shall  be  a  high  and  mighty  queen. 

4.  He  hath  put  down  the  mighty  from  their  seats. 

5.  Alexander  was  a  mighty  conqueror. 

6.  Give  us  some  gold,  good  Timon !     Hast  thou  more  ? 

7.  Man  wants  but  little  here  below. 
Nor  wants  that  little  long. 

8.  The  fairy  wore  a  little  red  cap. 

9.  I  heard  thee  murmur  tales  of  iron  wars. 

10.  Strike  now,  or  else  the  iron  cools. 

11.  Without  haste,  without  rest, 
Lifting  better  up  to  best. 

12.  You  are  a  better  scholar  than  I. 

13.  I  stand  before  you  a />"  man. 

14.  The  Star  Spangled  Banner,  O  long  may  it  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave  ! 

15.  Nature  ne'er  deserts  the  wise  and  pure. 

II. 

Make  sentences  of  your  own,  using  each  of  the  words 
studied  above,  (1)  as  a  noun,  (2)  as  an  adjective. 

HI. 

Make  sentences,  using  each  of  the  following  words, 
(1)  as  a  noun,  (2)  as  an  adjective  :  — 

Silver,  copper,  wood,  crystal,  leather,  tin,  bold,  cruel,  savage, 
generous,  evil,  right,  wrong,  studious,  inexperienced,  young. 


ADJECTIVES   AND  ADVERBS.  129 

CHAPTER    LVI. 

ADJECTIVES   AND   ADVERBS. 

218.  A  number  of  adverbs  are  identical  in  form  with 
adjectives :  as,  fast,  quick,  sloiv,  right,  wrong,  straight, 
cheap,  sound. 

Adjectives  Adverbs 

John  is  a  fast  runner.  John  runs  fast. 

That  action  is  not  right.  He  cannot  hit  the  ball  right. 

The  child  was  in  a  sound  sleep.  The  dog  sleeps  sound. 

This  is  a  cheap  pair  of  skates.  I  bought  them  cheap. 

Your  voice  is  too  low.  You  speak  too  low. 

Note.  —  In  the  oldest  form  of  English  many  adverbs  ended  in  -e,  as  if 
formed  directly  from  adjectives  by  the  addition  of  this  ending.  Thus,  the 
adjective  for  hot  was  hat,  side  by  side  -with  which  was  an  adverb  hate 
(dissyllabic),  meaning  hotly  or  in  a  hot  manner.  Iu  the  fourteenth  century 
(in  Chaucer,  for  example)  this  distinction  was  still  kept  up.  Thus,  Chaucer 
used  not  only  the  adjective  hot,  but  also  the  dissyllabic  adverb  hole,  mean- 
ing hotly.  Shortly  after  1400  all  weak  final  e's  disappeared  from  the 
language.  In  this  way  the  adverb  hote,  for  example,  became  simply  hot. 
Thus  these  adverbs  in  -e  lost  everything  which  distinguished  their  form 
from  that  of  the  corresponding  adjectives.  Hence  in  the  time  of  Shakspere 
there  existed,  in  common  use,  not  only  the  adjective  hot,  but  also  the 
adverb  hot  (identical  in  form  with  the  adjective  but  really  descended  from 
the  adverb  hote).  It  was  then  possible  to  say  not  only  "  The  fire  is  hot  " 
(adjective),  but  "  The  fire  burns  hot  "  (adverb  of  manner). 

The  tendency  in  modern  English  has  been  to  reduce  the  number  of 
such  adverbs  by  confining  the  form  without  ending  to  the  adjective  use 
and  restricting  the  adverbial  function  to  forms  in  -/;/. 

Thus,  a  writer  of  the  present  time  would  not  say,  in  prose,  "  The  fire 
burns  hot,"  but  "  The  fire  burns  hotly."  A  certain  number  of  the  old 
adverbs,  identical  in  form  with  the  corresponding  adjectives,  still  remain 
in  use,  and  students  should  take  care  not  to  regard  these  as  erroneous. 

In  poetry,  moreover,  the  language  of  which  is  usually  more  archaic 
than  that  of  prose,  adverbs  of  this  kind  are  freely  employed :  as,  — 

The  boy  like  a  gray  goshawk  stared  wild.     [In  prose:  stared  wildly.'] 


130  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

219.   Several  English  words  are  sometimes  Prepositions  and 
sometimes  Adverbs. 

Prepositions  Adverbs 

{Observe  the  object.)  {No  object.) 

The  cat  lay  down  before  the  fire.  You  told  roe  so  before. 

The  brook  runs  down  the  moun-  The    horse    fell    cloion    in    the 

tain.  street. 

The  park  lies  within    the  city  There  is  nobody  toithin. 

limits.  Lay  your  book  by.     [That  is, 

The  cottage  stands  by  the  river.  lay  it  aside.'] 

The  preposition  has  an  object,  and  thus  may  be  easily- 
distinguished  from  the  adverb,  which  of  course  has  none. 


EXERCISE. 

Study  the  italicized  words  and  tell  to  what  part 
of  speech  each  belongs.  Remember  that  the  sense 
determines. 

1.  I  must  reach  town  before  night. 

2.  I  have  met  you  before. 

3.  Is  there  anybody  within  f 

4.  Within  this  half  hour  will  he  be  asleep. 

5.  The  city  stands  on  a  hill  above  the  harbor. 

6.  The  sun  shines  above ;  the  waves  are  dancing. 

7.  He  went  by  the  house  at  a  great  pace. 

8.  He  passed  by  on  the  other  side. 

9.  The  horse  was  running  down  the  road. 

10.  The  lion  lay  down  in  his  lair. 

11.  Come  quick  !  We  need  your  help  at  once. 

12.  Elton  was  a  quick  and  skilful  workman. 

13.  This  remark  cuts  me  to  the  quick. 

14.  Hard  work  cannot  harm  a  healthy  man. 

15.  A  healthy  man  can  work  hard. 

16.  Jack  rose  early,  for  he  meant  to  go  a-fishing. 


STRUCTURE    OF  SENTENCES.  131 

CHAPTER    LVIL* 

STRUCTURE   OF    SENTENCES. 

220.  You  have  learned  the  main  facts  relating  to  the 
structure  of  sentences.  These  facts  will  now  be  summed 
up  for  reference  and  review. 

The  elements  which  make  up  a  sentence  are  (1)  subject, 
(2)  predicate,  (3)  modifiers,  (4)  the  three  complementary  ele- 
ments, predicate  nominative,  predicate  adjective,  object. 

Out  of  these  elements  a  single  sentence  of  almost  any 
length  may  be  constructed. 

221.  The  simple  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun naming  or  designating  the  person,  place,  or  thing 
that  is  spoken  of  (pp.  18,  21). 

The  simple  predicate  is  a  verb  or  verb-phrase  expressing, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject 
(pp.  18,  21). 

Two  or  more  simple  subjects,  with  or  without  modi- 
fiers, may  be  joined  to  make  a  single  compound  subject 
(pp.  107,  108). 

Two  or  more  simple  predicates  with  or  without  modi- 
fiers may  be  joined  to  make  a  single  compound  predicate 
(p.  110). 

Either  the  subject  or  the  predicate  or  both  of  them 
may  be  compound  (p.  110). 

The  simple  or  compound  subject,  with  modifiers, 
makes  up  the  complete  subject.     The  simple  or  compound 

*  This  chapter  summarizes  what  the  pupil  has  already  learned  of  the 
structure  of  sentences.  It  should  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  a  thorough 
and  systematic  review  of  this  subject.  The  Exercises  appended  to  the 
several  chapters  furnish  material  for  analysis. 


132  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

predicate,  with  modifiers   or   complementary  elements, 
makes  up  the  complete  predicate. 

222.  Modifiers  are  of  two  kinds :  adjective  modifiers 
and  adverbial  modifiers  (p.  53). 

223.  Adjective  modifiers  are  :  adjectives  (p.  53),  genitives 
(p.  86),  appositives  (p.  89),  adjective  phrases  (p.  68),  and 
adjective  clauses  (p.  120). 

Any  substantive  in  the  sentence  may  take  an  adjec- 
tive modifier. 

224.  Adverbial  modifiers  are  of  three  kinds:  adverbs 
(p.  53),  adverbial  phrases  (p.  71),  and  adverbial  clauses 
(p.  116). 

Any  verb  may  take  an  adverbial  modifier. 

225.  The  complementary  elements  serve  to  complete 
the  meaning  of  the  simple  predicate  (verb  or  verb- 
phrase). 

They  are  the  following:  predicate  nominative  (p.  99), 
predicate  adjective  (p.  97),  and  object  (pp.  90-94). 

226.  Certain  expressions  may  be  included  in  a  sen- 
tence without  being  a  part  of  its  structure. 

Such  are:  the  interjection  (p.  63),  the  vocative  (p.  33). 

227.  Sentences  may  be  simple,  compound,  or  complex  (pp. 
113-116). 

A  simple  sentence  consists  of  a  single  statement,  ques- 
tion, command  (entreaty),  or  exclamation. 

228.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  statements,  questions,  etc.,  which  may  or  may 
not  be  joined  by  coordinate  conjunctions  (and,  or,  etc.). 

Each  of  these  statements,  questions,  etc.,  is  a  clause 
of  equal  rank  in  the  sentence. 

A  compound  sentence,  then,  consists  of  two  or  more 
coordinate   clauses  (p.  113). 


STRUCTURE    OF  SENTENCES.  133 

229.  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  (1)  a  main  clause, 
and  (2)  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses  used  as  modifiers 
or  as  substantives  (p.  115). 

Subordinate  clauses  are  also  called  dependent  clauses. 

A  subordinate  clause  may  be  an  adjective  clause  (p.  120), 
an  adverbial  clause  (p.  116),  or  a  noun  clause  (p.  122). 

Noun  clauses  are  also  called  substantive  clauses. 

A  noun  clause  may  be  (1)  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  (2) 
an  appositive,  or  (3)  a  complementary  element,  —  predi- 
cate nominative  or  object  (p.  123). 

230.  A  clause  is  made  up  of  the  same  elements  that 
compose  a  sentence,  —  subject,  predicate,  modifiers,  and 
complementary  elements. 

Two  or  more  clauses  may  be  joined  to  make  one  com- 
pound clause,  just  as  two  or  more  sentences  may  be  joined 
to  make  one  compound  sentence. 

231.  There  is  in  theory  no  limit  to  the  length  of  a 
sentence. 

(1)  Since  any  noun  or  verb  may  be  modified  by  a  clause,  it 
complex  sentence  may  become  very  long  and  intricate. 

For  example,  tlie  predicate  of  a  subordinate  clause  may  be 
modified  by  another  subordinate  clause,  and  so  on. 

(2)  A  sentence  may  be  both  compound  and  complex. 

Such  a  sentence  may  be  made  by  joining  together  two  or  more 
complex  sentences  by  means  of  a  coordinate  conjunction.  It  is 
called  a  compound  complex  sentence. 

Every  sentence,  however  long  and  complicated,  may 
be  resolved  into  the  simple  elements  described  in  the 
preceding  sections. 

This  process  of  resolving  a  sentence  into  its  elements 
is  called  analysis. 

A  formula  for  analysis  is  given  on  page  134. 


134  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LVIIL* 

FORM   OF    ANALYSIS. 

232.  In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence,  the  following 
order  may  be  followed  :  — 

(1)  Divide  the  sentence  into  the  complete  subject  and  the 
complete  predicate  ;  (2)  mention  the  simple  subject  and  the  sim- 
ple predicate ;  (3)  mention  the  modifiers  of  the  subject  and  of 
the  predicate,  and  describe  each  modifier ;  (4)  mention  the  com- 
plementary elements,  —  predicate  nominative,  predicate  adjec- 
tive, object ;  (5)  mention  by  themselves  all  interjections  or 
vocatives,  since  these  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  structure  of 
the  sentence. 

233.  In  analyzing  a  compound  sentence  — 

(1)  Divide  the  sentence  into  its  clauses,  and  mention  the  con- 
junctions that  connect  them. 

(L')  Analyze  each  clause  as  if  it  were  a  simple  sentence. 

234.  In  analyzing  a  complex  sentence  — 

(1)  Divide  it  into  its  clauses,  and  tell  which  is  the  main  and 
which  is  the  subordinate  clause. 

(2)  Analyze  the  main  clause,  mentioning  the  subordinate 
clause  in  its  proper  place  as  a  modifier  or  as  a  substantive. 

(3)  Analyze  the  subordinate  clause. 

(4)  If  the  sentence  is  both  compound  and  complex,  divide  it 
into  the  several  complex  sentences  of  which  it  is  composed,  and 
analyze  each  of  these  as  above. 

*  The  exercises  which  precede  afford  abundant  opportunity  for  practice 
in  the  analysis  of  sentences  of  various  kinds.  At  this  stage  of  his  studies, 
the  pupil  should  not  be  required  always  to  analyze  sentences  to  their  very 
dregs,  nor  should  he  be  expected  to  analyze  any  sentence  that  is  so  com- 
plicated as  to  be  puzzling. 


INFLECTION.  135 

CHAPTER    LIX. 

INFLECTION. 

235.  At  the  very  outset  (p.  1)  we  learned  that  words 
may  change  their  form  to  indicate  some  change  in  the 
sense. 

Thus  the  nouns  George,  John,  Smith,  dog,  carpenter,  farmer, 
may  change  their  form  to  the  genitive  by  the  addition  of  's.  The 
verbs  walk,  tell,  recite  may  change  their  form  to  walks,  tells,  recites, 
or  walked,  told,  recited. 

Such  a  change  of  form  is  called  inflection,  and  a  word 
is  said  to  be  inflected  when  it  changes  its  form  to  indicate 
some  change  in  its  meaning. 

Inflectional  change  always  indicates  some  change  in 
meaning. 

236.  We  have  already  studied  *  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  the  inflectional  changes  which  words  undergo  in 
the  expression  of  thought.  (See  the  chapters  on  the 
plural  of  nouns  and  pronouns  and  those  on  the  genitive 
of  nouns  and  pronouns.) 

We  must  now  consider  systematically  the  various 
inflections  of  English  words,  and  with  this  study  the 
chapters  that  immediately  follow  will  be  chiefly  oc- 
cupied. 

*  At  this  point  the  teacher  may  find  it  useful  to  make  a  systematic 
review  of  pages  77-84,  90-03,  with  special  attention  to  the  nature  of  inflec- 
tion as  illustrated  by  the  singular  and  plural,  by  the  genitive,  and  by  the 
case-forms  of  pronouns.  The  extent  and  thoroughness  of  the  review  will 
naturally  depend  on  the  needs  of  the  pupils,  but  some  such  recapitula- 
tion of  what  has  already  been  learned  about  inflections  will  usually  be 
found  worth  while. 


136  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LX.* 

SUMMARY   OF    INFLECTIONS. 

237.  Before  studying  inflection  in  detail,  we  must 
consider  the  various  kinds  of  inflectional  change  of 
which  English  words  are  capable. 

In  many  languages  the  forms  of  inflection  are  numerous  and 
difficult. 

Thus  a  Roman  schoolboy  had  to  learn  more  than  a  dozen 
-different  forms  for  every  adjective,  and  children  in  ancient  Greece 
had  to  know  as  many  different  forms  not  only  of  the  adjective, 
but  even  of  the  definite  article. 

A  thousand  years  ago  our  own  language  also  abounded  in 
inflections,  but  in  the  course  of  time  most  of  these  have  dis- 
appeared, so  that  modern  English  is  one  of  the  least  inflected  of 
languages. 

238.  The  inflection  of  a  substantive  is  called  its  declen- 
sion ;  that  of  a  verb,  its  conjugation. 

239.  Nouns  and  pronouns  have  inflections  of  number 
which  show  whether  they  refer  to  one  person  or  thing 
or  more  than  one. 

There  are  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

240.  Pronouns  have  inflections  of  gender  to  show  the 
sex  of  the  objects  which  they  designate.! 

*  This  chapter,  like  Chapter  II  (on  the  Parts  of  Speech)  is  intended  for 
reading  and  reference.  It  should  not  he  committed  to  memory  at  this 
point.  It  may  also  he  used  as  a  summary  when  the  subject  of  inflection 
is  reviewed.     See  pages  203,  258,  foot-notes. 

j  Strictly  speaking  some  of  the  pronominal  forms  for  different  genders 
are  in  fact  distinct  words,  not  inflectional  variations.  These  words,  how- 
ever, are  so  associated  with  each  other  in  our  minds  that  they  may  be 
conveniently  treated  as  inflections.     See  page  153,  foot-note. 


SUMMARY   OF  INFLECTIONS.  137 

There  are  three  genders,  the  masculine,  the  feminine, 
and  the  neuter.     (See  p.  138.) 

241.  Nouns  and  pronouns  have  inflection  of  case  to  show 
their  relations  to  verbs  or  prepositions,  and  sometimes 
to  other  nouns. 

English  has  three  cases:  the  nominative  (or  subject 
case),  the  objective  (or  object  case),  and  the  genitive  (or 
possessive  case). 

The  nominative  and  objective  of  nouns  are  always 
the  same,  but  some  pronouns  show  a  difference  of  form 
between  these  two  cases.     (See  p.  153.) 

242.  Many  adjectives  have  inflections  of  comparison 
which  show  in  what  degree  of  intensity  the  quality 
that  they  designate  exists. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison:  the  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative.     (See  p.  175.) 
Many  adverbs  also  have  inflections  of  comparison. 

243.  Verbs  have  inflections  of  tense  to  show  the  time 
of  the  action  or  state  which  they  assert.     (See  p.  204.) 

There  are  two  inflectional  tenses,  the  present  (for 
present  time)  and  the  preterite  (for  past  time). 

Future  time  and  certain  varieties  of  past  time  are  in- 
dicated by  verb-phrases. 

244.  Verbs  have  inflections  of  mood  to  indicate  the 
manner  in  which  they  express  action. 

There  are  three  moods :  the  indicative  (which  is  used 
in  most  sentences),  the  imperative  (which  expresses  a 
command  or  entreaty),  and  the  subjunctive  (which  has 
certain  special  uses). 

Other  varieties  of  action  are  expressed  by  verb-phrases. 

245.  The  voice  of  a  verb  (active  or  passive,  see  p.  245) 
is  distinguished  in  English  by  means  of  verb-phrases. 


138  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LX1. 

GENDER. 

246.  Gender  is  distinction  according  to  sex. 

Male  beings,  whether  men  or  animals,  are  of  the  Masculine 
Gender ;  female  beings  are  of  the  Feminine  Gender ;  things  with- 
out animal  life  are  of  the  Neuter  Gender. 

Neuter  is  a  Latin  word  for  "  neither."  Things  without  animal 
life  are  of  the  neuter  gender  because  they  are  neither  masculine 
nor  feminine. 

247.  In  accordance  with  the  definitions  just  given,  English 
nouns  and  pronouns  are  said  to  be  of  the  Masculine,  the  Femi- 
nine, or  the  Neuter  Gender. 

1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  male  being  is  of  the  Mas- 
culine Gender. 

Examples  :  man,  bull,  ram,  Charles,  John,  bishop,  governor, 
general,  actor,  carpenter,  mason. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  female  being  is  of  the 
Feminine  Gender. 

Examples  :  woman,  cow,  ewe,  Mary,  Harriet,  lady,  seamstress, 
governess. 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  a  thing  without  animal  life 
is  of  the  Neuter  Gender. 

Examples  :  rock,  tree,  house,  money,  book,  wood,  machine, 
castle,  mountain,  glass,  wood. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  that  may  be  either  masculine  or 
feminine  is  sometimes  said  to  be  of  common  gender. 

Examples  :  cat,  puppy,  goat,  sheep,  uurse,  physician,  friend, 
companion. 


GENDER.  V6\) 

248.  The  rules  in  §  247  are  important  in  one  par- 
ticular only  :  with  regard  to  the  form  and  meaning  of 
pronouns,  for  English  nouns  have  no  inflection  of  gender. 
If  we  hear  the  sentence 

John  lost  his  dog, 

we  know  that  the  pronoun  his  refers  to  John,  for  both 
John  and  his  are  of  the  masculine  gender. 
Again,  in  the  sentence 

John  helped  Mary  find  her  dog, 

the  pronoun  her  refers,  of  course,  to  Mary,  and  not  to 
John  ;  for  both  Mary  and  her  are  feminine,  and  John  is 
masculine. 

Accordingly,  we  have  the  following  important  general 
rule  for  the  gender  of  pronouns  :  — 

249.  A  Pronoun  must  be  in  the  same  Gender  as  the  Noun  for 
which  it  stands  or  to  which  it  refers. 

250.  The  only  pronouns  that  indicate  difference  of  gender 
are  the  following  :  — 

Masculine  :  he,  his,  him.  Feminine  :  she,  he?;  hers. 

Neuter  :  it,  its,  which.  Masculine  or  Feminine  :   who, 

whom,  whose. 

All  other  pronouns  may  refer  to  nouns  of  any  gender. 
Such  are:  I;  you;  they,  their,  them;  either,  neither. 

I  like  Charles  and  John  because  they  are  polite.     [Masculine.] 
I  like  Mary  and  Kate  because  they  are  polite.     [Feminine.] 
I  like  Charles  and  Mary  because  they  are  polite.     [Masculine 

and  Feminine.] 

I  like  apples  and  pears  because  they  are  juicy.     [Neuter.] 

I  do  not  like   Charles  and  Mary  because  neither  of  them  is 

agreeable.     [Masculine  and  Feminine.] 


140  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  the  pro- 
nouns ;  tell  the  gender  of  each,  and  mention  the  noun 
to  which  each  refers. 

1.  The  horse  was  injured  in  oue  of  his  hind  legs. 

2.  Esther  was  going  to  see  if  she  could  get  some  fresh  eggs 
for  her  mistress's  breakfast  before  the  shops  closed. 

3.  All  speech,  even  the  commonest  speech,  has  something  of 
song  in  it. 

4.  Sam  ran  out  to  hold  his  father's  horse. 

5.  "Now,  Doctor,"  cried  the  boys,  "do  tell  us  your  adven- 
tures!" 

6.  Our  English  archers  bent  their  bows, 

Their  hearts  were  good  and  true, 
At  the  first  flight  of  arrows  sent, 
Full  fourscore  Scots  they  slew. 

7.  The  bridegroom  stood  dangling  his  bonnet  and  plume. 

8.  Emma  was  sitting  in  the  midst  of  the  children,  telling 
them  a  story ;  and  she  came  smiling  towards  Erne,  holding  out 
her  hand. 

II. 

Fill  each  blank  with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.  Tell  its 
gender,  and  give  your  reason. 

1.  The  poet  had  written last  song. 

2.  swept  the  hearth  and  mended  the  fire. 

3.  The  old  farmer  sat  in arm-chair. 

4.  Tom  lost knife  ;  but  Philip  found 


5.  Arthur  and  Kate  studied lessons  together. 

6.  The  Indian  picked  up  a  stone  and  threw at  the  bird. 

7.  The  tracks  were  so  faint  that could  not  be  followed. 

8.  My  aunt  has  sold horse  to cousin. 


GENDER.  141 


CHAPTER   LXIL 

SPECIAL   RULES    OF   GENDER.     I. 

251.  Many  nouns  ordinarily  of  the  Neuter  Gender  may  be- 
come Masculine  or  Feminine. 

1.  Any  lifeless  object  may  be  regarded  as  a  person  ca- 
pable of  thought,  speech,  and  action.     Thus,  — 

Mont  Blanc  is  the  monarch  of  mountains ; 

They  crowned  him  long  ago 
On  a  throne  of  rocks,  in  a  robe  of  clouds, 

With  a  diadem  of  snow. 

My  mother  Earth ! 
And  thou  fresh  breaking  Day,  and  you,  ye  Mountains, 
Why  are  ye  beautiful?  T  cannot  love  ye. 

2.  One  of  the  lower  animals  may  be  represented  as 
thinking  and  speaking.     So  in  fables. 

3.  Human  qualities,  emotions,  and  the  like,  are  often 
regarded  as  persons.     Thus,  — 

Hope  enchanted  smiled,  and  waved  her  golden  hair. 

Revenge  impatient  rose  : 
He  threw  his  blood-stain'd  sword,  in  thunder,  down. 

252.  The  usage  described  in  §  251  is  called  personifi- 
cation, and  the  things,  animals,  or  qualities  thus  treated 
are  said  to  be  personified.* 

*  The  personification  of  lifeless  objects  is  a  natural  tendency  of  the 
human  miud,  as  may  he  seen  from  the  talk  of  young  children.  The  per- 
sonification of  abstract  ideas  is  common  in  poetry  and  is  the  basis  of  all 
allegory.  The  personification  of  animals  is  perhaps  a  survival  of  a  very 
early  stage  of  culture  when  animals  were  regarded  as  capable  of  thought 
and  speech. 


142  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

253.  The  name  of  a  personified  quality  or  emotion  is 
regarded  as  a  proper  noun  and  begins  with  a  capital  letter. 
So,  often,  in  the  case  of  a  thing  or  animal  that  is  per- 
sonified.    Thus,  — 

Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee  , 

Jest  and  youthful  Jollity, 

Sport,  that  wrinkled  Care  derides, 

And  Laughter,  holding  both  his  sides. 

254.  In  referring  to  a  ship  or  other  vessel  the  pro- 
nouns she  and  her  (not  it  and  its)  are  regularly  used. 

Hence  the  nouns  ship,  barque,  brig,  schooner,  and  the 
like,  may  be  regarded  as  of  the  feminine  gender. 

Thus,  Admiral  Byron,  in  describing  the  loss  of  the 
ship  "Wager,"  writes  as  follows:  — 

In  the  morning,  about  four  o'clock,  the  ship  struck.  The 
shock  we  received  upon  this  occasion,  though  very  great,  being 
not  unlike  a  blow  of  a  heavy  sea,  such  as  in  the  series  of  preced- 
ing storms  we  had  often  experienced,  was  taken  for  the  same ; 
but  we  were  soon  undeceived  by  her  striking  again  more  violently 
than  before,  which  laid  her  upon  her  beam  ends,  the  sea  making 
a  fair  breach  over  her.  In  this  dreadful  situation  she  lay  for 
some  little  time,  every  soul  on  board  looking  upon  the  present 
minute  as  his  last ;  for  there  was  nothing  to  be  seen  but  breakers 
all  around  us.  However,  a  mountainous  sea  hove  her  off  from 
thence;    but  she  presently  struck  again,  and  broke  her  tiller. 


EXERCISES. 


Find  examples  of  personification  in  your  Reader. 
Why    are    some    objects    and   qualities    regarded    as 
masculine  and  others  as  feminine? 


GENDER.  143 


CHAPTER    LXIIL* 

SPECIAL   RULES    OF   GENDER.     II. 

255.  The  names  of  the  lower  animals  (as  dog,  horse, 
sheep,  cat,  butterfly,  ant)  are  variously  treated  with  re- 
gard to  their  gender. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sex  of  animals 
(for  example,  in  a  treatise  on  natural  history),  care  is 
taken  to  refer  to  them  by  means  of  the  pronoun  he  or 
she  according  as  the  animal  is  male  or  female. 

In  ordinary  speech,  on  the  other  hand,  most  large 
animals  are  referred  to  by  means  of  the  pronoun  he,  most 
insects  and  small  animals  by  means  of  the  pronoun  it. 

If,  however,  we  wish  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  we 
are  talking  of  living  beings,  we  may  use  the  pronoun  he 
of  any  creature  however  small.     So  especially  in  fables. 

256.  In  the  use  of  the  pronouns  who  and  which  with 
reference  to  the  lower  animals,  there  is  considerable  dif- 
ference of  usage.  The  general  rule  is  to  use  which; 
but  who  is  not  uncommon,  especially  when  an  animal 
is  thought  of  as  an  intelligent  being. 

Thus,  one  would  always  say  "  The  horse  which  I  bought  yester- 
day is  not  very  valuable  "  ;  even  if  one  immediately  added  "  He 
is  not  worth  more  than  one  hundred  dollars."  But  the  hunter  in 
Scott's  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  when  addressing  his  gallant  gray  who 
had  fallen  exhausted  after  the  stag  hunt,  might  well  have  said 
"  You,  my  gallant  gray,  who  have  carried  me  safely  through  so 
many  perils,  must  now  die  in  this  lonely  spot." 

*  This  chapter  is  meant  for  reading  and  conversation.  It  is  not  to  be 
committed  to  memory. 


144  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Such  questions  as  this  can  never  be  settled  by  mere 
rules  of  grammar.  The  feeling  of  the  speaker  must 
decide  in  each  case. 

Thought  gives  laws  to  grammar ;  grammar  does  not  govern 
thought. 

257.  It  and  its  are  often  used  in  referring  to  very 
young  children.     Thus, — 

The  baby  fell  and  hurt  its  head. 

258.  In  older  English  the  pronoun  his  was  neuter  as 
well  as  masculine.  Hence  in  Shakspere,  for  example, 
his  will  often  be  found  where  in  modern  English  its 
would  be  used.     Thus,  — 

My  life  has  run  his  compass. 
That  same  eye  did  lose  his  lustre. 


EXERCISES. 
I. 

Make  sentences  illustrating  the  gender  of  nouns  and 
pronouns  as  follows :  — 

1.  Use  he,  she,  and  it  so  that  each  shall  refer  to  some  noun  in 
the  proper  gender. 

2.  Use  the  genitives  his,  her,  its  in  the  same  way. 

3.  Use  they  to  refer  to  two  masculine  nouns ;  to  two  feminine 
nouns ;  to  two  neuter  nouns ;  to  two  nouns  of  different  gender. 

4.  Use  I,  my,  thou,  you  in  sentences,  and  see  if  you  can  tell 
their  gender. 

5.  Use,  in  properly  constructed  sentences,  who,  whose,  and 
whom  to  refer  to  persons;  which  to  refer  to  animals;  which  to 
refer  to  things. 


PLURAL   NUMBER.  145 

CHAPTER   LXIV.* 

PLURAL  OF  NOUNS. 

259.  Substantives  have  inflection  of  number. 

260.  Most  nouns  form  the  Plural  Number  by  adding  -s  or 
-es  to  the  Singular. 

Examples  :  crow,  crows ;  flower,  flowers ;  class,  classes. 

261.  Sometimes  the  last  letter  of  the  singular  form 
is   changed  before   the  ending  -s  or  -es  of  the  plural. 

Examples  :  fly,  flies ;  ally,  allies ;  remedy,  remedies. 

In  a  very  few  words  this  change  of  letter  indicates  a 
change  of  sound. 

Examples  :  calf,  plural  calves ;  half,  plural  halves ;  loaf,  plural 
loaves ;  knife,  plural  knives. 


EXERCISES. 

Write    in    parallel    columns    the    singular   and    the 
plural  of  — 

a.  Boy,  girl,  field,  street,  paper,  hook,  pencil,  brick,  bell,  door, 
hat,  lesson,  president,  governor. 

b.  Fly,  cry,  reply,  supply,  ally,  remedy,  subsidy. 

c.  Toy,  play,  alley,  donkey,  ray,  dray,  survey,  essay. 

d.  Calf,  half,  loaf,  knife,  wife,  life. 

Compare  your  four  lists,  and  see  if  you  can  frame  a 
rule  for  the  plural  of  — 

(1)  nouns  that  end  in  -y  after  a  consonant, 

(2)  nouns  that  end  in  -y  after  a  vowel, 

(3)  nouns  like  calf  and  knife. 

*  At  this  point  Chapter  XXXI  (pp.  77,  78)  should  be  reviewed. 


146 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER   LXV. 


IRREGULAR   PLURALS.     I. 

262.  A  few  nouns  form  an  irregular  plural  in  -en. 

These  are :  ox,  plural  oxen ;  brother,  plural  brethren  (more 
commonly,  brothers)  ;  child,  plural  children. 

In  older  English  there  were  many  more  n-plurals  than  at  present ;  as, 
—  eyen  (later  spelled  eyne),  eyes;  ashen,  ashes;  daughtren,  daughters; 
sistren,  sisters ;  hosen,  hose. 

263.  A  few  nouns  form  the  plural  number  not  by 
adding  a  termination  to  the  singular,  but  by  a  change  of 
vowel  in  the  word  itself.     These  are  :  — 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

man 

men 

tooth 

teeth 

woman 

women 

goose 

geese 

merman 

mermen 

mouse 

mice 

louse 


lice 


foot  feet 

Compound  nouns  of  which  the  second  part  is  man  or 
woman  belong  to  this  class. 

Examples  :  horseman,  plural  horsemen  ;  washerwoman,  plural 
washerwomen.     So,  Englishman,  Frenchman,  Dutchman. 
Norman,  however,  has  the  plural  Normans.* 

264.    A  few  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  singular 

and  plural. 

Examples  :  deer,  sheep,  swine,  neat,  (i.e.  cattle). 

My  pet  deer  is  dead. 

The  hunter  saw  a  great  herd  of  deer. 

There  are  a  hundred  sheep  in  this  flock. 

*  German,  Mussulman,  Ottoman,  dragoman,  firman  are  not  compounds 
of  man.    Hence  they  make  their  plural  in  s  :  Mussulmans,  Ottomans,  etc. 


IRREGULAR   PLURALS.  147 


265.    A  few  nouns  have  two  plurals.      Thus,  — 

Singular  Plural 

brother  brothers  or  brethren 

(  pennies  (single  coins) 
V       X  ( pence  (collectively) 


fish 
horse 
cloth 
die 


(  fishes  (singly) 
1  fish  (collectively) 
<  horses  (animals) 
(  horse  (cavalry) 
(  cloths  (pieces  of  cloth) 
(  clothes  (garments) 
(  dies  (for  stamping) 
\  dice  (for  gaming) 


In  such  cases  there  is  always  some  difference  in  the 
meaning  or  the  use  of  the  two  forms.  Brethren,  for 
example,  is  applied  not  to  one's  real  brothers,  but  to  one's 
associates  in  religion  or  some  fraternal  organization. 

For  full  information  as  to  particular  words,  a  large  Dictionary  should 
be  consulted. 

The  four  pennies  rolled  along  the  floor. 

The  price  of  this  thing  is  fourpence. 

Mr.  Thomas  owns  six  horses. 

The  troop  consisted  of  sixty  horse. 

266.  Some  foreign  words  that  have  been  taken  into 
English  keep  their  foreign  plurals.  Many  of  them  also 
make  a  plural  by  adding  -s  or  -es  after  the  English 
fashion.* 

Examples  :  erratum,  plural  errata ;  memorandum,  plural 
memoranda  or  memorandums  ;  thesis,  plural  theses ;  parenthesis, 
plural  parentheses ;  appendix,  plural  appendices  or  appendixes ; 
fungus,  plural  fungi  or  funguses. 

*  The  Dictionary  should  be  consulted  for  such  words. 


148  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   LXVL* 

IRREGULAR  PLURALS.     II. 

267.  Letters  of  the  alphabet,  figures  indicating  number, 
and  other  signs  add  -'s  in  the  plural. 

You  make  your  u's  and  your  n's  too  much  alike. 

Dot  your  i's  and  cross  your  t's. 

Mind  your  p's  and  q's. 

Cross  out  all  the  3's  and  Jfs. 

What  queer  looking  fy's! 

Be  careful  about  your  +'s  and  x  '.<?. 

So  also  words  when  regarded  merely  as  things  spoken 
or  written.     Thus,  — 

You  have  omitted  all  the  and's. 

He  writes  all  his  John's  with  small  j's. 

\  268.    A  noun  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  united 
into  one  is  called  a  compound  noun. 

Examples  :  bookcase,  teacup,  railroad,  window-pane,  box- 
cover,  handkerchief,  commander-in-chief,  father-in-law. 

Such  nouns  make  their  plurals  in  various  ways. 

Sometimes  only  the  first  part  of  the  compound  is  put 
into  the  plural  form  ;  sometimes  only  the  last  part ; 
sometimes  both  parts  are  made  plural. 

Hatband,  plural  hatbands ;  bookcase,  plural  bookcases ;  snow- 
bird, plural  snowbirds ;  spoonful,  plural  spoonfuls ;  mother-in-law, 
plural  mothers-in-law  ;  man-of-war,  plural  men-of-war ;  general-in- 
chic  f.  plural  generals-in-chief ;  man-servant,  plural  men-servants; 
woman-servant,  plural  women-servants. 

*  For  study  and  reference. 


IRREGULAR    PLURALS.  l4iJ 

- 

269.  The  parts  of  a  compound  noun  are  sometimes 
connected  by  a  hyphen  (as  in  box-cover),  sometimes 
written  together  without  a  hyphen  (as  in  teacup),  and 
sometimes  written  as  separate  words  (as  in  boat  club). 

These  differences  are  matters  of  custom,  and  usage  varies  much  in 
different  words  of  the  same  kind  and  sometimes  in  the  same  word.  In 
cases  of  doubt  the  pupil  should  consult  a  good  Dictionary. 

270.  Some  nouns  are  seldom  or  never  used  in  the 
plural  number. 

Such  are  many  names  of  qualities  (as  perseverance,  indignation, 
wrath,  satisfaction),  of  sciences  (as  astronomy,  biology),  of  forces  (as 
gravitation,  electricity),  etc. 

Many  other  nouns  are  confined  to  the  singular  in 
their  general  sense,  but  in  some  special  meaning  may 
take  a  plural.     Thus, — 

Iron  (a  metal),  plural  irons  (fetters)  ;  brass,  plural  brasses  (brass 
tablets)  ;  glass,  plural  glasses  (drinking  vessels,  spectacles,  etc.). 

271.  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  number  only. 

Sucli  are :  scissors,  pincers,  tongs,  lees,  dregs,  trousers,  annals, 
billiards,  proceeds. 

272.  A  few  nouns  are  plural  in  form,  but  singular  in 
sense. 

Such  are  :  news,  gallows,  measles,  small-pox  (for  small  pocks),  and 
some  names  of  sciences  (as  mathematics,  physics). 

No  news  is  good  news. 

The  measles  is  a  disease  of  children. 

Most  of  these  nouns  were  formerly  plural  in  sense  as  well  as  in  form. 
News,  for  example,  originally  meant  "  new  things,"  and  it  was  customary 
to  write  not  "  this  news,"  but  "  these  news." 

In  some  words  usage  varies.  Thus,  bellows  is  some- 
times regarded  as  a  singular  and  sometimes  as  a  plural. 


150  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXVIL 

IRREGULAR   PLURALS.     III. 

273.  With  regard  to  the  plural  of  proper  names  with 
the  titles  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss,  and  Master  usage  is  as  follows  : 

1.  The  plural  of  Mr.  (Mister)  is  3Iessrs.  (pronounced 
Messers).  With  this  title  the  name  itself  remains  in  the 
singular.     Thus,  — 

Mr.  Smith,  plural  Messrs.  (or  the  Messrs.)  Smith. 

2.  The  title  Mrs.  cannot  be  put  into  the  plural. 
Hence  the  name  itself  receives  the  plural  form.    Thus, — 

Mrs.  Thompson,  plural  the  Mrs.  Thompsons. 

3.  In  the  case  of  3fiss,  sometimes  the  title  is  put  in 
the  plural,  sometimes  the  name.     Thus,  — 

Miss  Smith,  plural  the  Misses  Smith  or  the  Miss  Smiths. 

4.  In  the  case  of  Master  the  title  is  put  in  the  plural, 
the  name  itself  remaining  in  the  singular.     Thus,  — 

Master  Prescott,  plural  the  Masters  Prescott. 


EXERCISES. 
I. 

Use  in  sentences  the  plurals  of  these  nouns :  — 

1.  Man,  fisherman,  deer,  sheep,  child,  ox,  penny,  Miss  Clark. 
Mr.  Ray,  Mrs.  Ray,  cattle,  horseman,  tooth,  German,  mouse. 

2.  Foot,  brother  (both  plurals),  Master  Wilson,  Miss  Atkins, 
handful,  son-in-law,  man-of-war,  bluebird,  handkerchief. 

Explain  all  the  forms  that  you  have  used. 


IRREGULAR   PLURALS.  151 

# 

II. 

Pick  out  the  plural  nouns,  and  give  the  singular  when 
you  can. 

Mention  any  peculiar  plurals  that  you  find. 

1.  Riches  do  many  things. 

2.  Tears     and    lamentations    were    seen    in    almost    every 
house. 

— 3.  The  skipper  boasted  of  his  catch  of  fish. 

_—4.  With  figs  and  plums  and  Persian  dates  they  fed  me. 

5.  The  rest  of  my  goods  were  returned  me. 
— £"6.  The  sheep  -were  browsing  quietly  on  the  low  hills. 
— *1.  The  Messrs.  Bertram  were  very  fine  young  men. 

8.  The  admiration  which  the  Misses  Thomas  felt  for   Mrs. 
Crawford  was  rapturous. 
—9.  He  drew  out  the  nail  with  a  pair  of  pincers. 
10.  His   majesty  marches  northwards  with    a   body  of   four 
thousand  horse. 
.11.  Flights  of  doves  and  lapwings  were  fluttering  among  the 

leaves. 

—12.  Down  fell  the  lady's  thimble  and  scissors  into  the  brook. 

13.  The  Miss  Blacks  lived,  according  to  the  worldly  phrase, 
out  of  the  world. 

^0kA.  The  day  after  came  the  unfortunate  news  of  the  queen's 
death. 

15.  No  person  dined  with  the  queen  but  the  two  princesses 

i'i  yak 

16.  I  cannot  guess  at  the  number  of  ships,  but  I  think  there 
must  be  several  hundreds  of  sail. 

17.  The  Miss  Bertrams  continued  to  exercise  their  memories. 

18.  Weavers,   nailers,   ropemakers,   artisans   of   every   degree 

and  calling,  thronged  forward  to  join  the  procession  from  every 
gloomy  and  narrow  street. 

19.  Now  all  the  youth  of  England  are  on  fire. 
-—  20.  Charles  has  some  talent  for  writing  verses. 


152  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


.  :•■ 


CHAPTER    LXVIII. 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.     I. 

274.  Each  of  the  following  sentences  has  a  pronoun  for 
its  subject :  — 

I  walk.     Thou  walkest.     He  walks. 

If  we  examine  the  sentences,  we  see  at  once  that  their 
subjects  (the  pronouns  I,  thou,  he)  do  not  all  refer  to  the 
same  person,  /denotes  the  person  who  speaks  the  sen- 
tence ;  thou  denotes  the  person  who  is  spoken  to ;  he 
denotes  neither  the  speaker  nor  the  person  spoken  to, 
but  some  third  person,  whom  we  may  call  the  person 
spoken  of. 

Hence  these  pronouns  are  called  personal  pronouns. 

275.  The  Personal  Pronouns  serve  to  distinguish  (i)  the 
speaker,  (2)  the  person  spoken  to,  and  (3)  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of. 

276.  The  personal  pronouns  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  as  follows :  — 

Pronouns  of  the  first  person  (denoting  the  speaker) : 
F :  plural,  we. 

Pronouns  of  the  second  person  (denoting  the  person 
spoken  to) :  thou;  plural,  you  (or  ye). 

Pronouns  of  the  third  person  (denoting  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of)  :  masculine,  he;  feminine,  she;  neu- 
ter, it;  plural  (masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter),  they. 

277.  The  several  personal  pronouns  take  various 
forms,  according  to  their  relation  to  other  words  in  the 
sentence,  that  is,  according  to  their  construction. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 


153 


We  have  already  seen  most  or  all  of  these  forms  in 
the  preceding  lessons.  We  will  now  collect  them  and 
arrange  them  in  order;  in  other  words,  we  will  study 
the  inflection  or  declension  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

278.    The  personal  pronouns  are  inflected  as  follows  :  * 


The  Pronoun  of  the  First  Person  :  /. 


Singular 
Nominative     I 
Genitive  my  or  mine 

Objective         me 


Plural 

Nominative     we 
Genitive  our  or  ours 

Objective         us 


The  Pronoun  of  the  Second  Person  :  thou. 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative     thou  Nominative     you  or  ye 

Genitive  thy  or  thine  Genitive  your  or  yours 

Objective         thee  Objective         you  or  ye 


The  Pronouns  of  the  Third  Person  :  he,  she,  it 
Singular 
Feminine 


Masculine 


Neuter 


Plural 
Masculine,  Feminine, 


aud  Neuter 

Nominative      he  she  it  they 

Genitive  his  her  or  hers     its  their  or  theirs 

Objective  him  her  it  them 

*  What  we  regard  as  different  forms  of  the  same  pronoun  are  sonm- 
times  distinct  words  (cf.  p.  136,  foot-note  t).  Thus,  in  the  first  person  we 
have  four  distinct  words :  (1)  I,  (2)  my,  mine,  me,  (3)  we,  (4)  our,  us ;  in 
the  second  person,  the  plural  is  a  different  word  from  the  singular.  In  the 
third  person,  all  the  singular  forms  except  she  helong  together  {it  heing  for 
an  older  hit),  but  the  plural  is  a  distinct  word. 


154  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXIX. 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.     II. 

279.  The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  (1 
and  thou)  are  of  common  gender;  that  is,  they  may  be 
used  for  either  male  or  female  beings. 

In  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person  there  is  a  distinc- 
tion of  gender  in  the  singular  (lie,  she,  it) ;  in  the  plural, 
however,  the  single  form  they  serves  for  all  three 
genders. 

280.  The  forms  thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  and  ye  are  sel- 
dom used  except  in  poetry  and  in  solemn  language  like 
that  of  prayer. 

Members  of  the  Society  of  Friends  (commonly  called  Quakers)  and  of 
some  other  religious  bodies  use  thee  and  thy  iu  their  ordinary  conversation. 

281.  Except  in  poetry  and  in  solemn  language,  you, 
your,  and  yours  do  chity  for  the  singular  number  as  well 
as  for  the   plural.     Thus,  — 

You  are  the  best  scholars  in  the  class.     [Plural.] 

You  are  the  best  scholar  in  the  class.     [Singular  in  sense.] 

When  the  forms  you  and  your  (or  yours)  are  used  in 
a  singular  sense,  they  are  often  said  to  be  in  the  singular 
number.  Yet  you,  whether  singular  or  plural  in  sense, 
always  takes  the  verb-forms  that  are  used  with  plural 
subjects.     Thus,  — 

You  were  my  friend.      You  were  my  friends. 

Such  a  form  as  you  ivas  is  a  gross  error.  It  is  best, 
therefore,  to  describe  you  as  always  plural  in  form,  but 
as  singular  in  sense  when  it  refers  to  a  single  person  or 
thing. 


PERSONAL    PRON.OUJSH.  155 


EXERCISES. 


Pick  out  the  personal  pronouns.  Tell  whether  each  is 
of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third  person.  Mention 
the  gender  and  number  of  each. 

1.  He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me. 

2.  Mahomet  accompanied  his  uncle  on  trading  journeys. 

3.  Our  Clifford  was  a  happy  youth. 

4.  And  now,  child,  what  art  thou  doing? 
«■■*»-  5.  I  think  I  can  guess  what  you  mean. 

6.  Then  boast  no  more  your  mighty  deeds  1 

7.  Round  him  night  resistless  closes  fast. 

8.  I  was  in  the  utmost  astonishment,  and  roared  so  loud  that 
they  all  ran  back  in  fright. 

9.  She  listens,  but  she  cannot  hear 
The  foot  of  horse,  the  voice  of  man. 

10.  He  hollowed  a  boat  of  the  birchen  bark, 
Which  carried  him  off  from  shore. 

11.  At  dead  of  night  their  sails  were  filled. 

12.  Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  their  fates. 

13.  Here  is  a  sick  man  that  would  speak  with  you. 

14.  Why  should  we  yet  our  sail  unfurl  ? 

15.  I  once  more  thought  of  attempting  to  break  my  bonds. 

16.  Our  fortune  and  fame  had  departed. 

17.  The  Hawbucks  came  in  their  family  coach,  with  the  blood- 
red  hand  emblazoned  all  over  it. 

18.  The  spoken  word  cannot  be  recalled.     It' must  go  on  its 
way  for  good  or  evil. 

19.  He  saw  the  lake,  and  a  meteor  bright 
Quick  over  its  surface  played. 

20.  I  have  endeavored  to  solve  this  difficulty  another  way. 

21.  The  military  part  of  his  life  has  furnished  him  with  many 
adventures. 


156  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

22.  lie  ambled  alongside  the  footpath  on  which  they  were 
walking,  showing  his  discomfort  by  a  twist  of  his  neck  every  few 
seconds. 

23.  Our  provisions  held  out  well,  our  ship  was  stanch,  and 
our  crew  all  in  good  health ;  but  we  lay  in  the  utmost  distress 
for  water. 

24.  Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright  — 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky — 

The  dew  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night, 
For  thou  must  die. 

25.  Lend  me  thy  cloak,  Sir  Thomas. 

26.  Captain  Fluellen,  you  must  come  presently  to  the  mines. 
The  Duke  of  Gloucester  would  speak  with  you. 

27.  Madam,  what  should  we  do  ? 

28.  Worthy  Macbeth,  we  stay  upon  your  leisure. 

29.  Fair  and  noble  hostess, 
We  are  your  guest  to-night. 

II. 

Mention  the  case  of  each  personal  pronoun  under  I, 
above.     Give  your  reasons. 

in. 

In  Exercise  i,  pp.  8,  9,  tell  the  person,  number,  and 
gender  of  each  pronoun ;  then  give  its  case  with  your 
reasons. 

This  exercise  is  called  "  parsing  "  words. 

IV. 

Use  these  personal  pronouns  in  sentences  of  your 
own :  — 

Me,  he,  you  (objective),  him,  she,  us,  ye,  thou,  my,  mine,  thee, 
its,  yours,  our,  I,  ours,  their,  it  (nominative),  thine,  his,  her 
(objective),  it  (objective),  theirs,  her  (genitive),  "we,  thy,  your, 
you  (nominative),  hers,  they,  them. 


NOMINATIVE   AND    OBJECTIVE.  157 

CHAPTER    LXX. 

NOMINATIVE  AND   OBJECTIVE  CASE. 

28i.  Nouns  and  pronouns,  as  we  have  already  learned, 
may  change  their  form  to  indicate  some  of  their  relations 
to  other  words  in  the  sentence. 

Thus,  the  noun  man  has  one  form  (man)  when  it  is 
the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb,  another  form  when  it 
indicates  possession. 

The  man  rides  well.     [Subject.] 

The  horse  kicked  the  man.     [Object.] 

The  man's  name  is  Jones.     [Possession.] 

Such  changes  of  form  are  said  to  indicate  the  case  of 
the  substantive. 

283.  Substantives  have  inflections  of  Case  to  indicate  their 
grammatical  relations  to  verbs,  to  prepositions,  or  to  other  sub- 
stantives. 

284.  English  grammar  distinguishes  three  cases,  — 
the  nominative  (or  subject  case),  the  objective  (or  object 
case),  and  the  genitive  (or  possessive  case). 

285.  A  substantive  that  is  the  Subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  Nom- 
inative Case. 

/  am  your  son.  The  bear  growled. 

Thou  art  the  man.  The  horse  gallops. 

We  are  Americans.  The  iron  sank. 

286.  A  substantive  that  is  the  Object  of  a  verb  or  preposition 
is  in  the  Objective  Case. 

He  wrongs  me.  Smith  gave  him  money. 

The  laws  protect  us.  Ye  call  me  chief. 

You  sent  me  to  him.  John  has  torn  his  coat. 


158 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


287.  There  is  no  difference  of  form  between  the  nomi- 
native and  the  objective  case  of  nouns.  Several  pro- 
nouns, however,  show  such  a  difference. 


Nom.  Sing. 

Obj.  Sing. 

Nom.  Pl. 

Obj.  Pl. 

I 

me 

we 

us 

thou 

thee 

ye  (or  you) 

you  (or  ye) 

he 

him  ~) 

she 

her     Y 

they 

them 

it 

it        ) 

who 

whom 

who 

whom 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences  pick  out  the  subjects  and 
objects  and  tell  the  case  of  each.     Give  your  reasons. 

1.  Forth  on  his  fiery  steed  betimes  he  rode. 

2.  A  thick  forest  lay  near  the  city. 

3.  When  they  met,  they  made  a  surly  stand. 

4.  It  is  true,  hundreds,  yea  thousands  of  families  fled  away 
at  this  last  plague. 

5.  Some  of  these  rambles  led  me  to  great  distances. 

6.  When  the  moonlight  nights  returned,  we  used  to  venture 

into  the  desert. 

7.  He  loaded  a  great  wagon  with  hay. 

8.  With  her  two  brothers  this  fair  lady  dwelt. 

9.  The  lord  of  the  castle  in  wrath  arose. 

10.  The  fair  breeze  blew,  the  white  foam  flew, 

The  furrow  followed  free ; 
We  were  the  first  that  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea. 

11.  A  dense  fog  shrouded  the  landscape. 


12.  How  he  blessed  this  little  Polish  lady 


PREDICATE  NOMINATIVE.  159 

CHAPTER    LXXI.* 

PREDICATE   NOMINATIVE. 

288.  An  important  nominative  construction  is  the  predi- 
cate nominative,  already  studied  in  pages  99-106. 

289.  A  substantive  standing  in  the  predicate  after  an  in- 
transitive or  passive  verb  and  referring  to  the  same  person  or 
thing  as  the  subject  is  in  the  Nominative  Case. 

Such  a  substantive  is  called  a  Predicate  Nominative. 

290.  This  rule  is  very  important  in  dealing  with  pro- 
nouns. With  nouns  it  is  of  less  practical  value,  since 
nouns  have  the  same  form  for  both  nominative  and 
objective. 

Right  Wrong 

It  is  /.     [Nominative.]  It  is  me.     [Objective.] 

Are  you  he  ?  Are  you  him  ? 

It  is  we  who  call.  It  is  us  who  call. 

That  is  he.  That  is  him. 

It  is  they.  It  is  them. 

291.  The  number  of  intransitive  verbs  that  may  be 
directly  followed  by  a  predicate  nominative  is  not  large. 
The  commonest  are  is  (was,  and  other  forms  of  the 
copula),  become,  and  seem. 

Others  are  verbs  or  phrases  closely  resembling  become 
or  seem  in  sense  :  as,  grow,  turn,  prove,  turn  out,  appear, 
look. 

This  may  appear  a  very  simple  principle. 

The  new  mare  proved  a  treasure. 

He  seems  a  very  genteel,  steady  young  man. 

*  Here  Chapters  XL1I-XLVI  should  he  reviewed. 


100  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

2-92.  Pronouns  are  seldom  found  in  the  predicate 
nominative  except  after  is,  was,  or  some  other  form  of 
the  copula.  The  subject  is  commonly  the  neuter  pro- 
noun it.     Thus,  — 

It  was  I.  [Not  :  It  was  me.] 
It  is  they.  [Not  :  It  is  them.] 
It  is  we.        [Not  :  It  is  us.] 

293.  Certain  transitive  verbs  in  the  passive  voice  may 
be  followed  by  a  predicate  nominative.     Thus,  — 

John  was  chosen  umpire. 

Washington  was  elected  president. 

This  experienced  soldier  was  appointed  general-in-chief. 

These  are  mostly  verbs  of  choosing,  calling,  and  the 
like. 

294.  The  predicate  nominative  after  passive  verbs  is 
sometimes  preceded  by  the  adverb  as.     Thus,  — 

He  was  regarded  as  a  hermit. 
Adams  was  selected  as  arbitrator. 

295.  After  the  phrases  to  be  and  to  become  the  predi- 
cate nominative  is  very  common.     Thus,  — 

How  should  you  like  to  be  /  ? 

I  like  best  to  be  myself.  I  don't  wish  to  be  you  or  he  or  she  or 
anybody  else. 

This  hunter  seemed  to  be  an  Indian. 

The  boy  wishes  to  become  a  sailor. 

This  constant  noise  began  to  be  a  great  annoyance. 

Philip  was  thought  to  be  an  honest  lad. 


EXERCISES. 

Review  the  Exercises  on  pages  100,  103,  105,  100. 


EXCLAMATORY  NOMINATIVE.  161 

CHAPTER    LXXII. 

NOMINATIVE    IN   EXCLAMATIONS. 

296.  A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  used  as  an  exclamation 
without  a  verb.     Thus,  — 

Poor  John  !  what  can  he  do  ? 
Poor,  unfortunate  / .'  whither  shall  I  turn  ? 
A  horse  !  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  ! 
Bananas  !  bananas  !  ripe  bananas  ! 
Nonsense !     I  don't  believe  a  word  of  it. 
Courage,  my  friends !     Help  is  at  hand. 

Such  nouns  and  pronouns  are  called  exclamatory  nomi- 
natives.* 

297.  The  Nominative  Case  may  be  used  in  an  Exclamation 
without  a  verb. 

298.  The  exclamatory  nominative  should  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  vocative,  or  nominative  of  direct 
address  (p.  33). t 

Poor  John  !     What  can  you  do  ?     [Vocative.] 

Poor  John  !     What  can  he  do  ?       [Exclamatory  Nominative.] 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  speaker  is  directly  addressing  John ; 
hence  John  is  in  the  vocative  construction. 

In  the  second  sentence,  the  speaker  is  talking  about  John,  not 
addressing  him;  hence  John  is  an  exclamatory  nominative. 

*  Some  of  these  exclamatory  nouns  are  really  fragments  of  sentences. 
Thus,  in  the  last  sentence,  "  Courage!  "  may  he  regarded  as  the  remnant 
of  "  Have  courage  !  "  or  "  Take  courage  !  "  No  one,  however,  has  a  com- 
plete sentence  in  mind  in  using  such  exclamations.  It  is  hest,  therefore, 
to  regard  the  substantives  as  standing  by  themselves,  and  to  treat  them  as 
exclamatory  nominatives.    Cf.  page  191,  foot-note. 

t  Here  the  chapter  on  the  Vocative  (pp.  33,  34)  should  he  reviewed. 


162  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Review  Exercise  n,  p.  35. 

II. 

Pick  out  all  the  vocatives  and  all  the  exclamatory 
nominatives.      Give  your  reasons  in  each  case. 

1.  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark-blue  ocean,  roll ! 

2.  Weapons  !  arms  !  what 's  the  matter  here  ? 

3.  Tartar,  and  Saphi,  and  Turcoman, 
Strike  your  tents  and  throng  to  the  van. 

4.  Awake  !  what  ho,  Brabantio  !  thieves !  thieves !  thieves ! 

5.  She,  poor  wretch !  for  grief  can  speak  no  more. 

6.  Fair  daffodils,  we  weep  to  see 
You  haste  away  so  soon. 

7.  Weep  no  more,  woful  shepherds,  weep  no  more. 

8.  O  father !  I  am  young  and  very  happy. 

9.  O  wonder !  how  many  goodly  creatures  are  there  here  ! 

10.  Milton  !  thou  should'st  be  living  at  this  hour. 

11.  Liberty!  freedom!  Tyranny  is  dead ! 

12.  Farewell,  ye  dungeons  dark  and  strong. 

ni. 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  nouns  (1) 
as  vocatives,  (2)  as  exclamatory  nominatives.  Use  an 
adjective  with  each  noun. 

Mary,  boy,  hunter,  Rover,  Scott,  woman,  friend,  comrades, 
king,  sailor,  Harry,  winter,  rain,  father,  brother. 

IV. 

Analyze  the  sentences  in  n.  (In  analyzing,  a  voca- 
tive or  an  exclamatory  nominative  should  be  mentioned 
by  itself,  and  not  treated  as  a  modifier.) 


GENITIVE    CASE.  163 

CHAPTER   LXXIIL* 

GENITIVE  OR   POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

299.  The  Genitive  Case  of  substantives  denotes  Possession. 

300.  The  meaning  and  the  common  forms  of  the  geni- 
tive case  have  already  been  studied  (pp.  81-84). 

301.  The  Genitive  Case  of  most  Nouns  has,  in  the  singular 
number,  the  ending  's. 

Examples  :  the  lion's  head,  the  cat's  paw,  the  horse's  mane, 
the  pirate's  cave,  George's  book,  Mary's  father. 

302.  (i)  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s  take  no  further  ending  for 
the  genitive.  In  writing,  however,  an  apostrophe  is  put  after  the 
s  to  indicate  the  genitive  case. 

Examples  :  the  lions'  heads,  the  cats'  paws,  the  boys'  fathers, 
the  horses'  manes,  the  pirates'  cave. 

303.  (2)  Plural  nouns  not  ending  in  s  take  's  in  the  genitive. f 
Examples:  the  women's  gloves,  the    children's   lessons,  the 

men's  swords,  fishermen's  luck. 

In  older  English  the  genitive  of  most  nouns  was  written  as  well  as 
pronounced  with  ths  ending  -es  or  -is.  Thus,  in  Chaucer,  the  genitive  of 
child  is  childes  or  childis;  that  of  king  is  hinges  or  kingis;  that  of  John 
is  Johnes  or  Johnis.  The  use  of  an  apostrophe  in  the  genitive  is  a  com- 
paratively modern  device,  and  is  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the  real 
nature  of  the  genitive  termination.  Scholars  at  one  time  thought  that 
the  s  of  the  genitive  was  a  fragment  of  the  pronoun  his :  that  is,  they  took 
such  a  phrase  as  George's  book  for  an  abbreviated  form  of  George  his  book. 
Hence  they  used  the  apostrophe  before  s  to  signify  the  supposed  omission 
of  part  of  the  word  his.  Similarly,  in  the  genitive  plural,  there  was 
thought  to  he  an  omission  of  a  final  es :  that  is,  such  a  phrase  as  the  horses' 
heads  was  thought  to  he  a  shortened  form  of  the  horseses  heads.  Both 
these  errors  have  long  been  exploded. 

*  Here  pages  81-85  should  he  reviewed. 

t  With  some  of  these  nouns  (as  geese,  oxen)  the  o/-phrase  is  commonly 
used. 


164  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

304.  Nouns  like  sheep,  deer,  which  have  the  same 
form  in  the  plural  as  in  the  singular,  ordinarily  take,  's 
in  the  genitive  plural.     Thus,  — 

The  sheep's  food  consisted  of  turnips.     [Singular.] 
The  sheep's  food  consisted  of  turnips.     [Plural.] 
The  deer's  horns  were  long  and  branched.     [Singular.] 
The  deer's  horns  were  long  and  branched.     [Plural.] 

305.  In  sound  the  genitive  plural  is  almost  always  the 
same  as  the  genitive  singular.  The  use  of  the  s'  forms 
may,  therefore,  render  our  meaning  doubtful.  We 
should  avoid  them  except  when  the  connection  makes 
the  sense  clear.     An  o/-phrase  may  be  used  instead. 

306.  With  regard  to  the  genitive  singular  of  nouns 
which  end  in  s  or  an  s-sound  (such  as  Jones,  Julius, 
Midas,  conscience,  etc.),  there  is  much  difference  of 
usage  both  in  speech  and  writing. 

By  the  rule  already  given  (§  301),  the  genitive  of 
these  words  would  end  in  's.     Thus,  — 

Jones's  house.  Midas's  golden  touch. 

Julius's  victory  over  Pompey.       For  conscu  nce's  sake. 

In  practice,  however,  good  writers  and  speakers  do 
not  always  add  's  in  making  the  genitive  of  these 
s-words.  The  following  statements  agree  with  the 
best  modern  usag-e :  — 

(1)  Monosyllabic  nouns  ending  in  s  make  their  geni- 
tive singular  in  the  regular  way ;  that  is,  by  adding  's. 
Thus,  — 

Jones's  house.  Mr.  Briggs's  name 

Watts's  great  invention,  the  steam-engine. 


GENITIVE    CASE.  165 

Most  of  the  nouns  that  conie  under  this  rule  are  proper  names, 
for  English  has  many  monosyllabic  family  names  ending  in  -s. 

(2)  Nouns  of  two  or  more  syllables,  not  accented  on 
the  last  syllable,  may  make  their  genitive  singular 
either  in  the  regular  way  (by  adding  '«)  or  may  take 
no  ending  in  the  genitive. 

In  the  latter  case  the  sound  of  the  genitive  form 
does  not  differ  from  the  sound  of  the  word  itself,  but, 
in  writing,  an  apostrophe  is  added  to  indicate  the  geni- 
tive case.     Thus,  — 

Mr.  Sturgis's  horse,  on  Mr.  Sturgis'  horse ; 
Midas's  golden  touch,  or  Midas'  golden  touch ; 
Julius's  victory,  or  Julius'  victory ; 
jEneas's  wanderings,  or  JEneas'  wanderings  ; 
For  conscience's  sake,  or  for  conscience'  sake. 
Felix's  sister,  or  Felix'  sister. 

This  rule  applies  to  many  English  surnames  as  well  as  to  a 
very  large  number  of  Greek  and  Latin  proper  names  common  in 
English  writers. 

(3)  Nouns  of  two  or  more  syllables,  when  accented  on 
the  last  syllable,  follow  the  rule  for  monosyllables. 
Thus,  — 

Laplace's  mathematics,  not  Laplace'  mathematics. 
Alphonse's  father,  not  Alphonse'  father. 

Note.  —  When  the  word  following  the  genitive  begins  with  s  or  an 
s-sound,  the  genitive  loses  its  ending  more  easily  than  under  other  circum- 
stances.   Thus  one  is  more  likely  to  say  Julius'  sister  than  Julius'  brother. 

The  use  of  an  o/"-phrase  enables  one  to  avoid,  at  will, 
most  of  the  difficulties  that  beset  the  genitive  of  s-nouns. 

Thus,  instead  of  balancing  between  Julius's  victory  and  Julius' 
victory,  we  may  say  the  victory  of  Julius. 


166  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

307.  Nouns  that  do  not  denote  living  beings  are  seldom  used 
in  the  genitive.  They  commonly  replace  this  form  by  a  phrase 
with  a  preposition  (usually  of). 

In  accordance  with  this  rule  we  should  say :  — 

the  handle  of  the  door,  not  the  door's  handle ; 

the  cover  of  the  book,  not  the  book's  cover; 

the  siege  of  Rome,  not  Rome's  siege ; 

the  great  fire  in  Chicago,  not  Chicago's  great  fire; 

the  abuse  of  power,  not  power's  abuse. 

308.  The  o/-phrase  is  often  used,  even  with  words  that 
denote  living  beings,  to  avoid  a  harsh-sounding  genitive. 

Thus,  "  the  horns  of  the  oxen,"  "  the  wings  of  the  geese,"  are 
preferred  to  "the  oxen's  horns,"  "  the  geese's  wings." 

309.  In  many  cases  either  the  genitive  or  the  0/*-phrase 

may  be  used  at  will.     In  such  instances  the  choice  is  a 
question  of  style,  not  of  grammar.* 

For  example:  the  two  phrases  "  Shakspere's  style" 
and  "  the  style  of  Shakspere  "  are  both  perfectly  good 
English,  and  one  is  as  agreeable  in  sound  as  the  other. 

The  rule  in  §  307  is  far  from  absolute.  It  is  merely  a  brief  statement 
of  the  tendency  that  appears  to  prevail  among  the  best  modern  writers  and 
speakers,  and  it  is  subject  to  frequent  exceptions.  The  use  of  the  genitive 
was  formerly  much  more  extensive  than  now,  and  many  phrases  like  at 
swords'  points,  at  my  fingers'  ends,  from  year's  end  to  year's  end,  for 
mercy's  sake  (and  other  phrases  with  sake),  still  survive  in  good  use. 
Besides,  usage  is  not  yet  uniform.  Some  writers  go  much  farther  than 
others  in  retaining  the  genitive,  and  it  often  happens  that  the  choice 
between  the  two  forms  of  expression  is  a  matter  of  taste.  There  can, 
however,  be  no  hesitation  in  condemning  such  expressions  as  "  New  York's 
population  has  increased  rapidly,"  "Chicago's  new  mayor,"  or  "Boston's 
Public  Library,"  as  in  very  bad  taste.  All  this  applies  to  prose  only;  the 
poets  still  use  the  genitive  with  perfect  freedom. 

*  Compare  the  remarks  at  page  xvii,  on  the  distinction  between  questions 
of  grammar  and  questions  of  style. 


1*7 

GENITIVE    CASE.  16  I 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Attach  a  noun  to  the  genitive  of  each  of  these  names. 

Thus,  — 

Smith.     Smith's  stable. 

Jones,  Thomas,  Gibbs,  Cyrus,  Charles,  Caesar,  Julius,  Mr.  Con- 
verse, Mr.  Cormers,  Mrs.  Ross,  Charles  Foss,  Antonius,  Brutus, 
Cassius,  Mr.  Anthony  Brooks,  J.  T.  Fields,  Romulus,  Remus, 
Mr.  Strangways,  Mrs.  Stnithers,  Matthew,  John  Matthews,  Dr. 
Morris,  Maurice,  Lord  Douglas,  Dr.  Ellis,  James,  Francis,  Frances, 
Eunice,  Felix,  Rose. 

II. 

Use  in  sentences  the  phrases  that  you  have  made  in  I. 

in. 
Review  Exercise  n,  p.  85. 

IV. 

Attach  a  noun  to  the  genitive,  singular  and  plural,  of 
each  of  these  words  (as  in  I,  above):  — 

Horse,  man,  woman,  child,  fish,  gentleman,  deer,  sheep,  bird, 
woli,  calf,  tiger,  snake,  badger,  fly,  spy,  turkey,  donkey,  ally. 

V. 

In  Exercises  I,  rv,  pp.  82,  83,  pick  out  all  the  geni- 
tives and  all  the  of-phrases  and  tell  to  what  noun  or 
pronoun  each  belongs. 

VI. 

In  each  sentence  in  Exercises  I,  iv,  pp.  82,  83,  sub- 
stitute, orally,  an  of-phrase  for  a  genitive  or  a  genitive 
for  an  o/-phrase,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  tell  whether 
the  sentence  as  thus  changed  is  good  or  bad  English.* 

*  In  some  of  the  sentences  either  form  is  permissible. 


168  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    J, XXIV.* 

CASE   OF   APPOSITIVES. 

310.  An  Appositive  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  substantive 
which  it  limits  or  defines. 

Thus,  an  appositive  limiting  either  the  subject  or 
a  predicate  nominative  is  in  the  nominative  case ;  an 
appositive  limiting  nn  object  is  in  the  objective  case. 

311.  What  is  the  case  of  the  appositive  in  each  of  the 
following  sentences  ? 

1.  Our  friends  the  Indians  left  us  at  this  point. 

2.  We,  the  people/  protest  against  this  injustice. 

3.  I,  your  chief,  bid  you  disperse. 

4.  Philip  Smith,  a  young  boatman,  was  drowned  yesterday. 

5.  Three  members  of  the  club,  John  and  Charles  and  /,  refused 
to  vote  for  the  admission  of  Joe  Dalling. 

6.  We  sat  in  the  firelight,  you  and  /. 

7.  My  friend,  he  who  had  stood  by  me  in  a  thousand  dangers, 
was  no  more. 

8.  We  drove  oft'  the  enemy,  horsemen  and  footmen. 

9.  This  rule  applies  to  three  of  us,  —  you  and  Jack  and  me. 
10.  Nobody  misses  us,  you  and  me. 

As  these  examples  show,  the  rule  for  the  case  of  ap- 
positives  is  important  with  respect  to  pronouns. 

312.  An  apparent  exception  to  the  rule  for  the  agree- 
ment of  the  appositive  is  seen  in  such  sentences  as 
follow :  — 

Smith  the  grocer's  dog  bit  me.    [Not  :  Smith's  the  grocer's  dog.] 
My  friend  William's  boat  is  stove. 
Our  daughter  Mary's  hair  is  brown. 

*  Here  pages  87-89,  00,  <>1  should  be  reviewed. 


CASE   OF  APP0SIT1VES.  169 

Here  the  genitive  ending  is  added  to  the  appositive 
only,  and  not  to  each  noun.  In  other  words,  the  whole 
phrase  (Smith  the  grocer,  my  friend  William,  our  daugh- 
ter Mary)  is  treated  as  if  it  were  a  single  noun. 

313.  A  phrase  ending  with  an  appositive  may  be  put  into 
the  genitive  by  adding  the  genitive  ending  to  the  appositive. 


EXERCISES. 


i. 

Review  the  Exercises  on  page  88.      Explain  the  case 
of  each  appositive. 

ii. 
Pick  out  the  appositives. 
Explain  the  case  of  each. 

1.  I  visited  my  old  friend  and  fellow-traveller,  Mr.  Henshaw. 

2.  At  length  the  day  dawned,  —  that  dreadful  day. 

3.  'Twas  where  the  madcap  duke  his  uncle  kept. 

4.  So  off  they  scampered,  man  and  horse. 

5.  The  north  wind,  that  welcome  visitor,  freshened  the  air. 

6.  I  see  him  yet,  the  princely  boy  1 

7.  His  prayer  he  saith,  this  patient,  holy  man. 

8.  The  vices  of  authority  are  chiefly  four  :  delays,  corruption, 
roughness,  and  facility. 

9.  'T  is  past,  that  melancholy  dream ! 

10.  Campley,  a  friend  of  mine,  came  by. 

11.  The  mayor,  an  aged  man,  made  an  address. 

12.  He  lent  me  his  only  weapon,  a  sword. 

13.  Captain  William  Robinson,  a  Cornishman,  commander  oi 
the  "Hopewell,"  a  stout  ship  of  three  hundred  tons,  came  to  my 
house. 

Analyze  each  of  the  sentences  above  (see  p.  89). 


170  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXV. 

INDIRECT   OBJECT. 

314.  Examine  the  following  sentence  :  — 

John  sent  a  letter. 

Here  the  transitive  verb  sent  is  followed  by  its  direct 
object,  letter. 

If  we  wish,  however,  to  mention  the  person  to  whom 
John  sent  the  letter,  we  can  do  so  by  inserting  a  noun 
or  pronoun  immediately  after  the  verb.     Thus,  — 

John  sent  Mary  a  letter. 

The  transitive  verb  sent  will  then  have  two  objects :  — 

(1)  its  direct  object,  letter; 

(2)  an  indirect  object,  Mary,  denoting  the  person  to  whom 
John  sent  the  letter,  —  that  is,  the  person  toward  whom 
is  directed  the  action  expressed  by  the  rest  of  the 
predicate. 

Other  examples  of  verbs  with  (1)  a  direct  object  only, 
and  (2)  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object,  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  sentences :  — 

Direct  Object  only  Direct  Object  and  Indirect  Object 
My  father  gave  money.  My  father  gave  the  sailor  money. 

I  sent  a  message.  I  sent  him  a  message. 

Thomas  lent  his  knife.  Thomas  lent  Albert  his  knife. 

315.  Some  transitive  verbs,  from  the  nature  of  their  mean- 
ing, may  take  two  objects,  a  Direct  Object  and  an  Indirect 
Object. 

The  Indirect  Object  denotes  the  person  or  thing  toward  whom 
or  toward  which  is  directed  the  action  expressed  by  the  rest  of 
the  predicate. 


INDIRECT   OBJECT.  171 

316.  The  verbs  that  take  an  indirect  object  are,  for 
the  most  part,  those  of  telling,  giving,  refusing,  and 
the  like. 

Such  are :  allot,  assign,  assure,  bequeath,  bring,  deny,  ensure, 
fetch,  forbid,  forgive,  furnish,  give,  grant,  guarantee,  leave,  lend, 
loan,  pardon,  pay,  refund,  refuse,  remit,  sell,  show,  spare,  tell, 
vouchsafe,  warrant. 

317.  The  position  of  the  indirect  object  is  immediately 
after  the  verb.     Thus, — 

The  merchant  sold  him  the  goods.  [Not  :  The  merchant  sold 
the  goods  Mm.'] 

The  banker  refused  my  friend  credit.  [Xot  :  The  banker  re- 
fused credit  my  friend."] 

318.  The  Indirect  Object  is  in  the  Objective  Case.* 

The  force  of  this  rule  may  be  seen  when  a  pronoun 
is  an  indirect  object. 

319.  The  indirect  object  may  be  recognized  by  the 
following  test :  ■ — 

It  is  always  possible  to  insert  the  preposition  to  before  the 
indirect  object  without  changing  the  sense. 

320.  The  indirect  object  is  sometimes  used  without 
a  direct  object  expressed.     Thus,  — 

He  told  John. 

Here  John  may  be  recognized  as  the  indirect  object  by  the  test 
already  given  (§  319,  above):  we  may  insert  to  before  it  without 
destroying  the  sense. 

*In  many  languages  the  indirect  object  has  a  special  form  of  inflection, 
called  the  dative  case,  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  direct  object.  This 
was  once  true  of  English  also;  but,  in  the  present  poverty  of  inflection 
which  marks  our  tongue,  there  is  no  distiuctiou  between  the  two  except  in 
sense. 


172  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Fill    each    blank  with    an    indirect    object  (noun  or 
pronoun). 

1.  My  sister  gave a  book. 

2.  A  deserter  brought news  of  the  battle. 

3.  The  king  granted a  pension  of  a  hundred  pounds. 

4.  Alfred  will  show his  collection  of  postage  stamps. 

5.  The  governor  paid the  reward. 

6.  The  prisoner  told the  whole  story. 

7.  De  Quincey's  father  left a  large  sum  of  money. 

8.  Our  teacher  granted our  request. 

9.  Can  such  conduct  give any  satisfaction? 

10.  His  indulgent  father  forgave his  many  faults. 

11.  The  grocer  refused credit. 

12.  The    surly   porter   refused  permission   to    enter   the 

building. 

13.  Poor  little  Fido  gave a  piteous  look. 

14.  I  can  spare ten  dollars. 

n. 
In  the   following    sentences  pick  out  all  the  direct 
objects,  and  all  the  phrases  in  which  the  idea  of  the 
indirect  object  is  expressed  by  means  of  to. 

1.  He  by  will  bequeathed  his  lands  to  me. 

2.  The  largest  share  fell  to  John. 

3.  To  Mortimer  will  I  declare  these  tidings. 

4.  He  has  told  all  his  troubles  to  you. 

5.  Entrust  your  message  to  her. 

6.  Do  you  give  attention  to  my  words  ? 

7.  The  judges  awarded  the  prize  to  Oliver. 

8.  Do  you  ascribe  this  drama  to  Shakspere  ? 

9.  Show  the  drawing  to  your  teacher. 

10.  The  scout  made  his  report  to  the  officer. 


DIRECT  AND  INDIRECT   OBJECTS.  173 

III. 

Make  ten  sentences  containing  the  following  verbs, 
each  with  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object :  — 

Sold,  told,  pays,  sends,  will  bring,  have  brought,  had  shown, 
fetches,  denied,  leut. 

IV. 

In  the  following  sentences  find  (1)  the  subjects,  (2)  the 
predicates,  (3)  the  direct  objects,  (4)  the  indirect  objects. 

1.  I  shall  assign  you  the  post  of  danger  and  of  renown. 

2.  The  king  ordered  him  a  small  present  and  dismissed  him. 

3.  The  thoughts  of  the  day  gave  my  mind  employment  for 
the  whole  night. 

4.  Miss  Pratt  gave  Uncle  Adam  a  jog  on  the  elbow. 
6.  The  king  made  me  a  present. 

6.  I  will  bring  you  certain  news  from  Shrewsbury. 

7.  I  will  deny  thee  nothing. 

8.  Fetch  me  the  hat  and  rapier  in  my  cell. 

9.  Forgive  us  our  sins  ! 

10.  My  father  gave  him  welcome. 

11.  I  will  not  lend  thee  a  penny. 

12.  The  mayor  in  courtesy  showed  me  the  castle. 

13.  I  shall  tell  you  a  pretty  tale. 

14.  Vouchsafe  me  one  fair  look. 

15.  The  reading  of  those  volumes  afforded  me  much  amuse- 
ment. 

16.  I   have    occasioned    her    some   confusion,   and,   for    the 
moment,  a  little  resentment. 

17.  He  '11  make  her  two  or  three  fine  speeches,  and  then  she  '11 
be  perfectly  contented. 

18.  Voltaire,  who  was  then  in  England,  sent  him  a  letter  of 
consolation. 

19.  The  evening  had  afforded  Edmund  little  pleasure. 

20.  Mrs.  St.  Clair  here  wished  the  happy  pair  good  morning. 


174  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   LXXVI. 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.     I. 

321.    Examine  the  following  sentences :  — 

John  is  tall. 

Thomas  is  taller  than  John. 

James  is  the  tallest  boy  in  the  school. 

In  these  sentences  we  observe  that  the  same  adjective 
appears  in  three  different  forms,  —  tall,  taller,  tallest. 

The  sense,  too,  changes  as  we  add  to  the  simple  form 
tall  the  endings  -er  (making  tall-er)  and  -est  (making 
tall-est).  Yet  this  variation  of  meaning  does  not  affect 
the  essential  meaning  of  the  adjective  :  John  and 
Thomas  and  James  are  all  three  tall. 

The  difference,  then,  is  not  one  of  kind  but  one  of 
degree. 

In  the  first  sentence  we  simply  assert  that  John  is 
tall,  and  we  make  no  comparison  of  his  tallness  with  the 
stature  of  anybody  else. 

In  the  second  sentence  we  not  only  assert  that  Thomas 
is  tall,  but  we  compare  his  height  with  that  of  another 
person,  asserting  that  he  is  taller  than  John. 

In  the  third  sentence  we  go  still  farther.  We  do  not 
merely  assert  that  James  is  tall,  nor  do  we  content  our- 
selves with  saying  that  he  is  taller  than  some  other 
person,  but  we  use  the  strongest  form  known  to  us  to 
express  his  tallness :  we  say  that  he  is  the  tallest. 

These  three  forms  which  adjectives  may  assume  are 
known  as  degrees  of  comparison ;  and  they  are  called,  respec- 
tively, the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative 
degree. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES.  175 

322.  The  Degrees  of  Comparison  of  an  Adjective  indicate  by 
their  form  in  what  degree  of  intensity  the  quality  described  by 
the  adjective  exists. 

323.  There  are  three  Degrees  of  Comparison,  —  the  Positive, 
the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

324.  The  Positive  Degree  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  adjective 
and  has  no  special  ending. 

It  simply  describes  the  quality  without  suggesting  a  com- 
parison between  the  person  or  thing  possessing  it  and  any  other 
person  or  thing. 

Thus,  the  positive  degree  of  the  adjective  tall  is  tall. 

325.  The  Comparative  Degree  of  an  adjective  is  formed  by 
adding  the  termination  -er  to  the  positive  degree. 

It  indicates  that  the  quality  exists  in  the  person  or 
thing  described  in  a  higher  degree  than  in  some  other 
person  or  thing. 

Thus,  the  comparative  degree  of  the  adjective  tall  is 
taller. 

326.  The  Superlative  Degree  is  formed  by  adding  -est  to  the 
positive  degree. 

It  indicates  that  the  quality  exists  in  the  highest 
degree  in  the  person  or  thing  described. 

Thus,  the  superlative  degree  of  the  adjective  tall  is 
tallest. 

327.  Other  examples  of  the  comparison  of  adjectives  are : 

Positive  Degree  Comparative  Degree  Superlative  Degree 
strong                            stronger  strongest 

fair  fairer  fairest 

quick  quicker  quickest 

clear  clearer  clearest 


17(3  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXVIL* 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.     II. 

328.  In  forming  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees 
by  means  of  the  endings  -er  and  -est,  the  following  rules 
of  spelling  should  be  observed  :  — 

1.  Adjectives  ending  in  silent  -e  drop  this  letter  be- 
fore the  comparative  ending  -er  and  the  superlative 
ending  -est.     Thus,  — 

Positive  Degree      Comparative  Degree         Superlative  Degree 


fine 

finer  (n 

ot  fine- 

er) 

finest  (not  fine-est) 

rare 

rarer 

rarest 

rude 

ruder 

rudest 

blithe 

blither 

blithest 

polite 

politer 

politest 

2.  Most  adjectives  ending  in  -y  change  y  to  i  before 
the  endings  -er  and  -est.     Thus,  — 

Positive  Degree  Comparative  Degree  Superlative  Degree 
dry                               drier  driest 

holy  holier  holiest 

worthy  worthier  worthiest 

merry  merrier  merriest 

3.  Adjectives  having  a  short  vowel  and  ending  in  a 
single  consonant  double  this  before  the  endings  -er  and 
-est.     Thus,  — 


Positive  Degree 

Comparative  Degree 

Superlative  Degree 

fat 

fatter 

fattest 

thin 

thinner 

thinnest 

hot 

hotter 

hottest 

*  This  chapter  is  for  reference  only. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES.  177 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Write  in  three  columns  the  following  adjectives  in 
the  three  degrees  of  comparison  :  — 

Bright,  lowly,  tall,  smooth,  rough,  quick,  nimble,  fierce,  black, 
able,  subtle,  crazy,  mad,  sane,  muddy,  wet,  dry,  red,  sad,  humble. 

II. 

Pick  out  such  adjectives  as  are  in  the  comparative 
or  the  superlative  degree.  Give  the  positive  degree  of 
each.     Mention  the  substantive  to  which  each  belongs. 

1.  He  was  a  bigger  boy  than  I. 

2.  They  were  some  of  the  choicest  troops  of  his  whole  army. 

3.  The  town  is  one  of  the  neatest  in  England. 

4.  Life  is  dearer  than  the  golden  ore. 

5.  Byron  was,  at  his  death,  but  a  year  younger  than  Burns. 

6.  On  the  highest  part  of  the  mountain  is  an  old  fortress. 

7.  The    storm    of    passion  insensibly  subsided   into   calmer 
melancholy. 

8.  The    sternest    sum-total    of    all    worldly    misfortunes    is 
death. 

9.  Her  astonishment  now  was  greater  than  ever. 

10.  The  air  grew  colder  and  colder ;  the  mist  became  thicker 
and  thicker ;  the  shrieks  of  the  sea-fowl  louder  and  louder. 

III. 

Make  sentences  containing  the  following  adjectives  (1) 
in  the  positive  degree  ;  (2)  in  the  comparative  degree  ; 
(3)  in  the  superlative  degree :  — 

Fast,  pure,  low,  clumsy,  high,  large,  brown,  ragged,  cross,  deep, 
cheery,  merry,  short,  hungry,  quiet,  green,  manly,  noble,  severe, 
handsome,  lovely. 


178  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXVIIL 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.     III. 

329.  Many  adjectives  are  compared,  not  by  means  of  the  end- 
ings -er  and  -est,  but  by  prefixing  the  adverbs  more  and  most 
to  the  positive  degree. 

He  is  a  more  honorable  man  than  his  neighbor.  [Not  :  He  is 
an  honorabler  man  than  his  neighbor.] 

He  is  the  most  honorable  man  in  the  company.  [Xot  :  He  is 
the  honorablest  man  in  the  company.] 

Examples  of  comparison  by  means  of  more  and  most 
are  the  following  :  — r 

Positive  Degree  Comparative  Degree  Superlative  Degree 

difficult  more  difficult  most  difficult 

splendid  more  splendid  most  splendid 

horrible  more  horrible  most  horrible 

capacious  more  capacious  most  capacious 

magnificent  more  magnificent  most  magnificent 

In  this  method  of  comparison,  more  and  most  are  ad- 
verbs modifjdng  the  adjective  before  which  they  stand. 

330.  Comparison  by  means  of  -er  and  -est  is  called 
inflectional  comparison. 

Comparison  by  means  of  more  and  most  is  called 
analytical  comparison. 

331.  Some  adjectives  may  be  compared  in  two  ways: 
(1)  by  means  of  the  endings  -er  and  -est,  and  (2)  by 
means  of  the  adverbs  more  and  most. 

Examples  :  worthy,  worthier,  worthiest ;  or,  worthy,  more 
worthy,  most  worthy. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES.  179 

Most  adjectives,  however,  can  be  compared  in  only 
one  way.  It  is  usually  short  adjectives  that  are  com- 
pared by  means  of  -er  and  -est.  Many  adjectives  of  two 
syllables  and  most  adjectives  of  three  or  more  syllables 
admit  only  of  comparison  by  means  of  more  and  most. 

Note.  —  Comparison  by  means  of  -er  and  -est  was  formerly  much  more 
common  than  now.  Thus,  such  forms  as  famouser,  famousest,  honor- 
abler,  honorablest,  difficulter,  and  difficultest,  which  would  not  be  allowable 
in  modern  English,  occur  in  old  writers. 

The  present  tendency  of  our  language  is  to  decrease  the  use  of  inflec- 
tional and  to  increase  the  use  of  analytical  comparison.  It  is  well,  how- 
ever, to  hold  to  such  cases  of  -er  and  -est  as  are  still  in  good  use. 


EXERCISE. 

Find  the  comparatives  and  the  superlatives. 

1.  The  evening  was  more  calm  and  lovely  than  any  that  yet 
had  smiled  upon  our  voyage. 

2.  The  environs  are  most  beautiful,  and  the  village  itself  is 
one  of  the  prettiest  I  ever  saw. 

3.  Example  is  always  more  efficacious  than  precept. 

4.  The  Edinburgh  scholars  of  that  period  were  more  noted 
for  clearness  of  head  than  for  warmth  of  heart. 

5.  Nothing  could  be   more  bleak    and  saddening  than  the 
appearance  of  this  lake. 

6.  The  country  became  rougher,  and  the  people  more  savage. 

7.  He  sat  down  with  a  most  gloomy  countenance. 

8.  The  Caliph  remained  in  the  most  violent  agitation. 

9.  A  more  extraordinary  incident  has  seldom  happened. 

10.  The  wind  was  even  more  boisterous  than  usual. 

11.  The  most  elaborate  preparations  had  been  made. 

12.  The  garret  windows  and  housetops  were  so  crowded  with 
spectators  that  I  thought  in  all  my  travels  I  had  not  seen  a  more 
populous  place. 


180  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXIX. 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.     IV. 

332.    Several  very  common  adjectives  have  irregular 
forms  of  comparison. 

The  most  important  of  these  irregular  adjectives  are:  — 


Positive  Degree 

Comparative  Degree 

Superlative  Degree 

bad  (evil,  ill) 

worse 

worst 

far 

farther 

farthest 

f  nrther 

furthest 

good 

iii1  i  1 1'  ' 

better 

best 

late 

later,  latter 

latest,  last 

well  (in  health) 

better 

little 

less,  lesser 

least 

much,  many 

more 

most 

In  some  of  these  cases  the  comparative  and  superlative  are  different 
words  from  the  positive,  hut  they  have  heen  so  long  associated  with  it  in 
the  minds  of  all  speakers  and  writers  that  they  are  felt  to  helong  to  it 
almost  as  much  as  if  they  were  simply  modifications  of  its  form. 

333.  The  adjective  old  has  two  forms  (older  and  elder) 
for  the  comparative,  and  two  (oldest  and  eldest)  for  the 
superlative. 

The  forms  elder  and  eldest  are  used  only  with  refer- 
ence to  the  age  of  persons.  They  are  further  restricted 
(1)  to  certain  nouns  signifying  relationship  and  (2)  to 
the  phrases  the  elder  and  the  eldest.     Thus,  — 

My    elder    brother    is    named  John  is  older  than  I. 

Charles.  The  dog  is  older  than  his  young 
She  has  an  elder  sister.  master. 

Frank    is    the    eldest    of     the  The    oldest   book    may  be   the 

cousins.  best. 


COMPARISON    OF  ADJECTIVES. 


181 


Elder  is  sometimes  a  noun.     Thus,  — 

Children  should  respect  their  elders. 
The  elders  of  the  people  took  counsel. 

334.  Next  is  in  form  an  old  superlative  of  nigh,  but 
it  is  used  only  in  the  special  sense  of  "  the  very  nearest," 
"  immediately  adjacent."     Thus,  — 

My  friend  lives  in  the  next  house. 

The  landing  of  the  troops  took  place  on  the  next  day. 

Our  lesson  in  geography  comes  next. 

335.  A  few  superlatives  ending  in  -most  are  in  more 
or  less  common  use.  With  these,  one  or  both  of  the 
other  degrees  are  commonly  wanting. 


Positive 


hind 


(out,  adverb) 
(up,  adverb) 


Comparative 

(former) 

hinder 

inner 
(  outer 
(  (utter) 

upper 


nether 


top 

north 
northern 
south 
southern 
east,  eastern 
west,  western 


(more  northern) 


(more  southern) 
(more  eastern) 
(more  western) 


Superlative 

foremost 

hindmost 

inmost,  innermost 

outmost,  outermost 

utmost,  uttermost 

uppermost 

endmost 

nethermost 

topmost 

furthermost 

northmost 

northernmost 

southmost 

southernmost 

easternmost 

westernmost 


Note.  —  The  ending  -most  is  not  the  adverb  most.    It  is  a  very  old 
superlative  ending  -mest  changed  under  the  influence  of  the  adverb  most. 


182  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE. 

Find  the  comparatives  and  the  superlatives. 

1.  He  walked  off  without  further  ceremony. 

2.  A  friend  in  the  court  is  better  than  a  penny  in  purse. 

3.  Cresar  has  been  called  the  foremost  man  of  all  this  world. 

4.  The  inquisitive  prince  passed  most  of  his  nights  on  the 
summit  of  his  tower. 

5.  I  must  confess  your  offer  is  the  best. 

6.  The  worst  minds  have  often  something  of  good  principle 
in  them. 

7.  So  doth  the  greater  glory  dim  the  less. 

8.  This  island  was  at  a  greater  distance  than  I  expected,  and 
I  did  not  reach  it  in  less  than  five  hours. 

9.  There  are  two  or  three  more  pens  in  the  box. 

10.  I  ne'er  had  worse  luck  in  my  life  ! 

11.  Lead  the  way  without  any  more  talking. 
'  12.  He  grows  worse  and  worse. 

13.  I  said  an  elder  soldier,  not  a  better. 

14.  Orlando  approached  the  man  and  found  it  was  his  brother, 
his  elder  brother. 

15.  Present  fears  are  less  than  horrible  imaginings. 

16.  That  is  Antonio,  the  duke's  eldest  son. 

17.  A  sad  tale  's  best  for  winter. 

18.  To  fear  the  worst  oft  cures  the  worse. 

19.  The  bird  is  perched  on  the  topmost  bough. 

20.  My  title  's  good,  and  better  far  than  his. 

21.  I  have  three  daughters ;  the  eldest  is  eleven. 

22.  To  weep  is  to  make  less  the  depth  of  grief. 

23.  He  has  his  health,  and  ampler  strength,  indeed, 
Than  most  have  of  his  age. 

24.  I  will  use  my  utmost  skill  in  his  recovery. 

25.  Brutus'  love  to  Caesar  was  no  less  than  his. 

26.  My  utmost  efforts  were  fruitless. 

27.  We  cannot  defend  the  outer  fortifications. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 


183 


CHAPTER    LXXX. 

COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES.     V. 

336.  Some  adjectives  are,  from  their  meaning,  inca- 
pable of  comparison.      Thus,  we  can  say  : 

The  figure  is  three-cornered. 

But  it  would  be  absurd  to  say  : 

That  figure  is  more  three-cornered  than  the  other. 
This  is  the  most  three-cornered  of  several  figures. 

For,  if  what  we  are  describing  is  three-cornered  at  all, 
that  is  the  end  of  it:  there  can  be  no  degrees  of  tri- 
angularity.    In  general,  then, 

Adjectives  which  denote  an  absolute  degree  of  a  quality  do  not 
admit  of  comparison. 

Note  1.  —  To  this  class  are  commonly  said  to  belong  such  words  as 
■perfect,  straight,  exact,  and  the  like;  but  such  a  statement  is  not  quite 
accurate.  If  perfect  is  used  in  its  strict  sense,  that  is,  to  denote  absolute 
perfection,  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  compare  it;  for  a  thing  which  is 
perfect  is  perfect,  and  cannot  be  spoken  of  as  more  perfect  or  most  perfect. 
But  perfect  has  also  another  sense,  namely,  "  partaking  in  a  higher  or 
lower  degree  of  the  qualities  which  make  up  absolute  perfection,"  so  that 
it  is  possible  to  describe  one  statue  as  more  perfect  than  another,  or  one  of 
three  statues  as  the  most  perfect  of  them  all.  In  this  use,  which  is  entirely 
unobjectionable,  we  simply  admit  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  world  abso- 
lutely faultless  or  flawless,  and  assert  that  the  three  statues  commented  on 
approach  ideal  perfection  in  various  degrees. 

Note  2.  —  The  question  what  adjectives  are  capable  of  comparison  and 
what  are  incapable  of  comparison  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  question  of 
grammar  at  all.  It  is  a  question  either  of  logic  (common  sense)  or  of  style. 
If,  therefore,  we  say  "This  is  the  most  three-cornered  figure  that  I  ever 
saw,"  we  are,  to  be  sure,  talking  nonsense,  but  our  nonsense  is  quite  gram- 
matical, for  no  rule  of  grammar  is  violated.  If,  on  the  other  hand  we  say 
"  This  is  the  three-corneredest  figure  that  I  have  ever  seen,"  we  are  both 
talking  nonsense  and  violating  a  rule  of  grammar,  since  the  word  three- 
corneredest  is  not  properly  formed. 


184 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER    LXXXI. 

COMPARISON   OF  ADVERBS. 

337.  Adverbs,  like  adjectives,  have  three  Degrees  of  Com- 
parison :  the  Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

338.  Most  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  more  and 
most.     Thus,  — 

The  wind  blows  violently.     [Positive.] 

The  wind  blows  more  violently  than  ever.     [Comparative.] 

The  wind  blows  most  violently  in  the  winter.     [Superlative.] 

339.  A  few  adverbs  are  compared  by  means  of  the  endings 
-  er  and  -  est.     Thus,  — 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

cheap 

cheaper 

cheapest 

dear 

dearer 

dearest 

early 

earlier 

earliest 

fast 

faster 

fastest 

hard 

harder 

hardest 

high 

higher 

highest 

long 

longer 

longest 

loud 

louder 

loudest 

near 

nearer 

nearest 

often  (oft) 

oftener 

oftenest 

quick 

quicker 

quickest 

slow 

slower 

slowest 

soon 

sooner 

soonest 

sound  (of  sleeping) 

sounder 

soundest 

Many  comparatives  and  superlatives  in  -er  and  -est 
that  are  no  longer  allowable  in  prose  are  still  used  in 
poetry. 


COMPARISON    OF  ADVERBS.  185 

CHAPTER    LXXXII. 

IRREGULAR   COMPARISON   OF   ADVERBS. 

340.    Several  very   common   adverbs   have   irregular 
forms  of  comparison. 


'osittve 

Comparative 

Superlative 

far     I 

forth  } 

(  farther 
\  further 

(  farthest 
(  furthest 

ill  (evil) 
badly 

nigh 

} 

worse 
nigher 

worst 

(  nighest 
X  next 

well 

better 

best 

late 

later 

(  latest 
( last 

little 

less 

least 

much 

more 

most 

These  adverbs  are  in  the  main  identical  in  form  with 
the  adjectives  discussed  in  §  332,  above. 
Note,  however: 

(1)  that  good  and  bad  are  never  adverbs ; 

(2)  that  ill  and  well,  better  and  best,  worse  and  worst, 
may  be  either  adverbs  or  adjectives. 

341.  Some    adverbs   admit  of   either   inflectional  or 
analytical  comparison. 

342.  Many  adverbs   are,  from   their  meaning,  inca- 
pable of  comparison.     Such  are  :  — 

(1)  here,  there,  then,  so,  noiv,  and  the  like; 

(2)  adverbs  derived  from  adjectives   that  express  a 
quality  as  absolute  or  complete  (see  p.  183,  and  notes). 


186  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  all  the  adverbs  and 
tell  what  each  modifies. 

If  the  adverb  is  capable  of  comparison,  give  its  three 
degrees.  If  its  meaning  makes  it  incapable  of  compari- 
son, state  that  fact  and  give  your  reasons. 

1.  Youth  seldom  thinks  of  dangers. 

2.  To  every  man  upon  this  earth 
Death  cometh  soon  or  late. 

3.  So  the  days  passed  peacefully  away. 

4.  It  would  ill  become  me  to  boast  of  anything. 

5.  Delvile  eagerly  called  to  the  coachman  to  drive  up  to  the 
house,  and  anxiously  begged  Cecilia  to  sit  still. 

6.  They  came  again  and  again,  and  were  every  time  more 
welcome  than  before. 

7.  Perhaps  this  awkwardness  will  wear  off  hereafter. 

8.  And  he,  God  wot,  was  forced  to  stand 
Oft  for  his  right  with  blade  in  hand. 

9.  He  heard  a  laugh  full  musical  aloft. 

10.  The  following  morning  Gertrude  arose  early. 

11.  She  walks  too  fast,  and  speaks  too  fast. 

12.  The  seamen  spied  a  rock  within  half  a  cable's  length  of 
the  ship,  but  the  wind  was  so  strong  that  we  were  driven  directly 
upon  it,  and  immediately  split. 

13.  Was  that  the  king  that  spurred  his  horse  so  hard? 

14.  "  We  know  each  other  well." 

"  We  do,  and  long  to  know  each  other  worse." 
15".  He  came  too  late ;  the  ship  was  under  sail. 

16.  How  slow  this  old  moon  wanes ! 

17.  Your  judgment  is  absolutely  correct. 

18.  The  tide  rose  higher  and  higher. 

19.  He  swims  energetically  but  slowly. 

20.  The  corn-tiers  were  all  most  magnificently  clad. 


COMPARATIVE  AND  SUPERLATIVE.  187 

CHAPTER   LXXXIIL 

USE  OF   COMPARATIVE  AND   SUPERLATIVE. 

343.  It  is  a  common  mistake  to  use  the  superlative 
degree  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  for  the  comparative. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  two  degrees  are  cor- 
rectly employed :  - — 

Smith  is  the  better  of  the  two  men. 
Jones  is  the  best  of  the  three  men. 

In  the  first  sentence  two  persons  are  compared,  and 
the  comparative  degree  is  used;  in  the  second,  more  than 
two  persons  are  compared,  and  the  superlative  is  used. 

We  should  never  think  of  saying  "  He  is  the  better 
of  the  three  men."  It  is,  however,  a  common  error  to 
say  "He  is  the  best  of  the  two  men"  ;  that  is,  to  use 
the  superlative  when  only  two  persons  are  spoken  of, 
and  when,  therefore,  the  comparative  is  the  proper  form. 

344.  The  Comparative  Degree,  not  the  Superlative,  is  used 
in  comparing  two  persons  or  things. 

The  Superlative  is  used  in  comparing  one  person  or  thing 
with  two  or  more  persons  or  things. 

345.  In  a  few  idiomatic  phrases  the  rule  given  in 
§  344  is  not  observed. 

Thus  we  say  "  He  puts  his  best  foot  foremost,"  not 
"  He  puts  his  better  foot  foremost,"  although  a  man  has 
but  two  feet.* 

Note. —  In  older  English  the  superlative  was  often  used  instead  of  the 
comparative. 

*  Compare  "  the  first  of  the  two  men." 


188  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

346.  It  is  an  error  to  use  more  and  most  before  adjec- 
tives or  adverbs  that  are  already  in  the  comparative  or 
the  superlative  degree.  Thus,  such  expressions  as  more 
better,  most  best,  the  most  proudest  are  incorrect. 

Note.  —  Double  comparison  was  allowed  in  older  English,  but  is  not 
now  in  good  use. 

347.  An  adjective  phrase  may  sometimes  be  compared 
by  prefixing  more  and  most  to  it.     Thus,  — 

Your  hat  is  more  in  fashion  than  mine.  \_More  in  fashion  = 
more  fashionable.] 

The  eldest  son  was  most  in  favor  with  his  father. 
This  plan  is  more  to  my  mind  than  the  other. 

Usually,  however,  the  effect  of  the  comparative  or 
the  superlative  degree  is  produced  by  inserting  a  com- 
parative or  superlative  adjective  with  the  noun  of  the 
adjective  phrase.     Thus,  — 

A  person  of  respectability  told  me  the  story. 

A  person  of  still  higher  respectability  told  me  this. 

A  person  of  the  highest  respectability  told  me  this. 


EXERCISES. 
I. 

Make  sentences  in  which  you  use  the  following  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs  correctly  :  — 

Better,  best,  sooner,  most  agreeable,  nimbler,  nimblest,  most, 
more,  quicker,  quickest,  smallest,  smaller,  most  interesting,  slower, 
slowest,  more  accurate,  most  accurate. 

II. 
Analyze  the  sentences  that  you  have  made. 


COMPARATIVE  AND  SUPERLATIVE.  189 

III. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  adjectives  or  adverbs  in  the 
comparative  or  the  superlative  degree  as  the  meaning 
requires. 

Give  the  grounds  of  your  choice  in  each  case. 

1.  Tom  and  I  are  friends.    Indeed  he  is  the friend  I  have. 

2.  Which    is    the    (more    or    most?)   studious    of   your   two 
sisters  ? 

3.  Both  generals  are  brave,  but  the  old —  is  of  course  the 
(more  or  most  ?  )  experienced  of  the  two. 

4.  Of  all  the  men  in  our  company  T  think  the  very  brave — 
was  Corporal  Jackson. 

6.  Texas  is  the  large —  of  the  United  States. 

6.  Which  is  large — ,  Chicago  or  Philadelphia? 

7.  Mention  the  large —  city  in  the  world. 

8.  I  don't  know  which  I  like  (better  or  best?),  —  history  or 
arithmetic. 

9.  Which  do  you  like  (better  or  best?),  —  history,   arith- 
metic, or  reading  ? 

10.  I  like  history than  anything  else. 

11.  Of  all  my  studies  I  like  history . 

12.  Which  is  the  heavi — ,  a  pound  of  feathers  or  a  pound  of 
gold? 

13.  Which  is  the  heavi — ,  a  pound  of  feathers,  a  pound  of 
lead,  or  a  pound  of  gold? 

14.  Jane  is  the  tall —  of  the  family. 

IV. 

Compare  the  following  adverbs  :  — 

Soon,  often,  badly,  well,  noisily,  merrily,  far,  much,  furiously. 

V. 

Use  the  superlative  of  each  adverb  in  iv  in  a  sentence 
of  your  own. 


190  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXXIV. 

DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS   AND   ADJECTIVES. 

348.  Each  of  the  following  sentences  has  a  pronoun 
for  its  subject :  — 

This  is  a  good  knife.  That  is  a  tall  man. 

The  words  this  and  that,  the  subjects  of  these  sen- 
tences, are  obviously  pronouns,  for  they  designate  some 
person  or  thing  but  do  not  give  it  a  name  (§  25). 

In  their  use  in  these  sentences  this  and  that  resemble 
the  personal  pronouns  of  the  third  person.  For  this 
might  be  replaced  by  it,  and  that  by  he,  without  any 
very  great  change  in  the  meaning.     Thus,  — 

It  is  a  good  knife.  He  is  a  tall  man. 

This  and  that,  however,  are  stronger  and  more  defi- 
nite than  it  and  he  would  be. 

The  difference  is  that  this  and  that  appear  to  point 
out  somebody  or  something.  We  can  easily  imagine 
the  speaker  as  actually  pointing  with  the  finger  as  he 
utters  the  word. 

For  this  reason  this  and  that  are  called  demonstratives, 
that  is,  "pointing"  words  (for  demonstrate  comes  from 
a  Latin  word  which  means  "to  point  out"). 

349.  The  Demonstratives  are  this  (plural,  these)  and 
that  (plural,  those).  They  are  used  to  point  out  or  desig- 
nate persons  or  things  for  special  attention. 

This  is  a  red  apple.  These  are  tall  buildings. 

That  is  a  Spanish  soldier.  Those  were  excellent  oranges. 

I  do  not  like  that.  He  is  angry  at  this. 


DEMONS  TEA  TI VES.  191 

350.  In  the  examples  given  above,  the  demonstra- 
tives are  used  substantively  as  subjects  or  objects.*  But 
the  same  words  may  also  be  used  to  limit  a  noun. 

This  man  is  guilty  of  theft.  These  books  are  shabby. 

That  river  runs  rapidly.  Those  birds  fly  high. 

In  these  sentences  the  demonstratives  this,  these,  that, 
those  are  adjectives. 

351.  The  Demonstratives  may  be  used  either  as  Pronouns 
or  as  Adjectives. 

Other  examples  of  demonstrative  adjectives  are  :  — 

That  picture  is  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller. 

Under  this  tree  sat  the  sprightly  old  lady  with  her  knitting- 
needles. 

This  brave  duke  came  early  to  his  grave. 
Then  turn  your  forces  from  this  paltry  siege. 
That  judge  hath  made  me  guardian  to  this  boy. 


EXERCISE. 


Write  twenty  sentences,  each  containing  a  demon- 
strative (this,  that,  these,  or  those). 

Examine  each  sentence,  and  tell  whether  you  have 
used  the  demonstrative  as  a  pronoun  (substantively)  or 
as  a  limiting  adjective  (adjectively). 

*  The  pupil  should  not  be  directed  to  "supply  nouns"  iu  such  sen- 
tences as  those  in  §§  ,"48,  349.  For  example,  it  is  unscientific  to  expand 
the  first  sentence  in  §  349  to  "  This  (apple)  is  a  red  apple,"  and  then  to 
"parse"  this  as  an  adjective.  It,  is  even  more  objectionable  to  expand 
the  third  sentence  by  inserting  thing  (or  the  like)  after  that.  The  plan 
of  "supplying"  unexpressed  words  (as  being  "understood")  tends  to 
confuse  real  distinctions  of  language,  and  should  never  be  resorted  to 
when  it  can  be  avoided. 


192  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXXV. 

INFLECTION   OF  DEMONSTRATIVES. 

352.  Demonstrative  pronouns  and  adjectives  have  only  the 
inflection  of  Number. 

The  nominative  and  objective  cases  are  alike;  the 
genitive  is  wanting  and  is  replaced  by  of  with  the 
objective. 

Singular  Plukal 

Norn,  and  Obj.     this  Nom.  and  Obj.     these 

Genitive  [of  this]  Genitive  [of  these] 

Nom.  and  Obj.     that  Nom.  and  Obj.     those 

Genitive  [of  that]  Genitive  [of  those] 

353.  Demonstratives  have  the  same  form  for  all  three 
genders.     Thus,  — 

That  man ;  that  woman  ;  that  tree. 
This  gentleman  ;  this  lady  ;  this  axe. 
These  boys ;  these  girls  ;  these  hammers. 
Those  lords  ;  those  ladies  ;  those  castles. 


EXERCISES. 


Tell  whether  each  demonstrative  below  is  a  pronoun 
or  an  adjective.     Mention  its  number  and  case. 

1.  This  is  the  whole  truth.  5.  That  story  is  false. 

2.  This  apple  is  sour.  6.  Are  you  sure  of  that? 

3.  These  men  are  brave.  7.  John  told  me  this. 

4.  That  is  a  strange  fish.  8.  These  are  facts. 


DEMONS  TBA  TIVES.  193 

n. 

Pick  out  the  demonstratives  below.  Tell  whether 
each  is  used  substantively  (as  a  pronoun)  or  adjectively 
(as  a  limiting  adjective). 

1.  These  thoughts  did  not  hinder  him  from  sleeping  soundly. 

2.  These  are  Clan-Alpine's  warriors  true. 

3.  Loth  as  they  were,  these  gentlemen  had  nothing  for  it  but 
to  obey. 

4.  "  Major  Buckley,"  I  said,  "  what  horse  is  that  ?  " 

5.  Nor  yet  for  this,  even  as  a  spy, 

Hadst  thou,  unheard,  been  doomed  to  die. 

6.  Ill  with  King  James's  mood  that  day 
Suited  gay  feast  and  minstrel  lay. 

7.  That  horse's  history  would  be  worth  writing. 

8.  All  this  was  meant  to  be  as  irritating  as  possible. 

9.  These  fertile  plains,  that  softened  vale, 
Were  once  the  birthright  of  the  Gael. 

10.  Many  hundred  large  volumes  have  been  published  upon 
this  controversy. 

11.  What  a  good  old  man  that  is ! 

12.  That  absolves  me  from  any  responsibility. 

13.  Jim  will  be  sorry  to  hear  of  this. 

14.  To  hear  this  beautiful  voice  after  so  long  a  silence  —  to 
find  those  calm,  dark,  friendly  eyes  regarding  him  —  bewildered 
him,  or  gave  him  courage,  he  knew  not  which. 

15.  This  murderous  chief,  this  ruthless  man, 
This  head  of  a  rebellious  clan, 

Hath  led  thee  safe,  through  watch  and  ward, 
Far  past  Clan-Alpine's  outmost  guard. 

16.  Those  are  terrible  questions. 

17.  These  were  the  strong  points  in  his  favor. 

18.  I  '11  fill  these  dogged  spies  with  false  reports. 

19.  These  soldiers  are  Danes,  those  are  Swedes. 

20.  Can  you  hesitate  long  between  this  and  that? 


194  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXXVL* 

INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS   AND   ADJECTIVES. 

354.  A  number  of  words  that  resemble  the  demon- 
stratives in  their  use  are  called  indefinites. 

Examples  :  each,  every,  either,  both,  neither,  some,  any,  such, 
none,  other,  another,  each  other,  one  another. 

Their  use  may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

Each  of  us  has  his  own  faults. 
Every  soldier  carried  a  pike. 
I  do  not  dislike  either  of  you. 
He  gave  money  to  both. 
Some  birds  cannot  fly. 
Give  me  some  of  that  gold. 
Such  a  villain  is  unfit  to  live. 

From  these  examples  it  is  clear  that  the  indefinite 
pronouns  and  adjectives  point  out  or  designate  objects, 
but  less  clearly  or  definitely  than  demonstratives  do. 

355.  Most  of  the  indefinites  may  be  either  pronouns  or 
adjectives.  But  none  is  always  a  substantive  in  modern 
use,  and  every  is  always  an  adjective. 

356.  Each  other  and  one  another  may  be  regarded  as 
compound  pronouns.  They  designate  persons  or  things 
that  stand  in  some  kind  of  mutual  relation.     Thus,  — 

The  children  love  each  other. 
They  all  fought  with  one  another. 

There  is  no  real  distinction  between  each  other  and  one  another.  The 
rules  sometimes  given  for  such  a  distinction  are  not  supported  by  the  best 
usage  and  may  be  disregarded. 

*  This  chapter  is  for  reference. 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES.     195 

357.  One  (genitive  one's)  is  often  used  as  a  kind  of 
indefinite  personal  pronoun  ;  as,  — 

One  does  not  like  one's  motives  to  be  doubted. 

All,  several,  few,  many,  and  similar  words  are  often  counted  among 
indefinites,     They  may  be  used  as  adjectives  or  as  substantives. 

Everybody,  everything,  anybody,  anything,  etc.,  may  be  called  inde- 
finite nouns. 


EXERCISE. 

Parse  the  indefinite  pronouns,  nouns,  and  adjectives 

1.  They  used  to  talk  about  each  other's  books  for  hours. 

2.  Some  war,  some  plague,  some  famine  they  foresee. 

3.  The  two  armies  encountered  one  another  at  Towton  Field, 
near  Tadcaster.  No  such  battle  had  been  seen  in  England  since 
the  fight  of  Senlac. 

4.  The  morning  was  raw,  and  a  dense  fog  was  over  every- 
thing. 

5.  Some  wild  young  colts  were  let  out  of  the  stock-yard. 

6.  They  tell  one  another  all  they  know,  and  often  more  too. 

7.  Bate  me  some  and  I  will  pay  you  some. 

8.  I  do  not  wish  any  companion  in  the  world  but  you. 

9.  The  big  round  tears  coursed  one  another  down  his  inno- 
cent nose. 

10.  Grace  and  remembrance  be  to  you  both. 

11.  I  know  it  pleaseth  neither  of  us  well. 

12.  Each  hurries  toward  his  home. 

13.  Gentlemen  both,  you  will  mistake  each  other. 

14.  No  such  apology  is  necessary. 

15.  Does  either  of  you  care  for  this? 

16.  Mine  honor  is  my  life.     Both  grow  in  one 

17.  The  parcels  contained  some  letters  and  verses. 

18.  Think  you  there  was  ever  such  a  man  ? 

19.  A  black  day  will  it  be  to  somebody. 

20.  Friend,  we  understand  not  one  another. 


196  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER    LXXXVIL 

THE  SELF-PRONOUNS. 

358.  The  English  language  possesses  a  number  of 
compound  personal  pronouns  of  which  the  first  part  is  one 
of  the*  personal  pronouns  in  some  form,  and  the  second 
part  is  the  word  self. 

These  are :  myself,  plural  ourselves ;  thyself,  yourself,  plural 
yourselves  ;  himself,  herself,  itself,  plural  themselves. 

To  these  may  be  added  oneself,  more  commonly  written  as  two 
words,  one's  self. 

Observe  that  yourself  is  singular,  and  yourselves  plural. 

Hisself  and  theirselves  are  incorrect  forms. 

359.  The  self-pronouns  have  two  distinct  uses  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

The  captain  himself  replied  to  my  question. 
He  himself  was  present. 

The  defeated  general  killed  himself 'in  despair. 
He  betrayed  himself  by  his  folly. 

In  the  first  two  of  the  sentences  himself  simply 
makes  more  emphatic  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which 
it  is  attached.  In  this  use  the  self-pronouns  are  called 
intensive  pronouns,  because  they  serve  merely  to  intensify 
or  strengthen  the  meaning  of  some  substantive. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  sentences  the  use  of  himself 
is  quite  different.  In  each,  himself  is  the  direct  object 
of  a  transitive  verb  (hilled,  betrayed)  ;  yet  himself  refers 
to  the  same  person  denoted  by  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence (general,  he).  In  other  words,  the  subject  (general, 
he)  is  represented  as  doing  something  to  itself. 


THE   SELF-FMONOUiWS.  197 

The  difference  between  such  an  object  as  himself  and 
an  ordinary  object  may  be  seen  by^comparing  the  fol- 
lowing sentences :  — 

The  man  shot  the  burglar.  The  man  shot  himself. 

[Here  the  subject  (man)  and  [Here  the  subject  (man)  and 
the  object  (burglar)  are  obvi-  the  object  (himself)  are  obvi- 
ously different  persons.  The  ously  one  and  the  same  person. 
subject  is  described  as  acting  The  subject  is  described  as  act- 
on some  other  person.]  ing  on  himself.] 

In  this  use  the  self-pronouns  are  called  reflexive  pro- 
nouns. 

The  word  reflexive  means  "  bending  back."  It  is  applied  to  the 
pronouns  because,  in  this  use,  we  must  refer  back  to  the  subject 
of  the  sentence  in  order  to  know  who  or  what  is  the  person  or 
thing  designated  by  the  object. 

These  two  uses  of  the  self-pronouns  are  easily  con- 
fused, though  quite  distinct. 

360.  The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  ending  in  -self  may 
be  used  to  emphasize  substantives. 

In  this  use  they  are  called  Intensive  Pronouns. 

361.  An  intensive  pronoun  may  be  regarded  as  in 
apposition  with  the  substantive  to  which  it  is  attached. 

362.  The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  ending  in  -self  may 
be  used  as  the  Objects  of  transitive  verbs  or  of  prepositions  when 
the  object  denotes  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the 
sentence  or  clause. 

In  this  use  they  are  called  the  Reflexive  Pronouns. 

A  reflexive  pronoun  may  be  the  indirect  object  of 
a  verb  whose  meaning  allows.     Thus,  — 

He  gave  himself  a  blow  [=  He  gave  a  blow  to  himself]. 


198  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  the  intensive 
pronouns  and  tell  with  what  noun  or  pronoun  each  is 
in  apposition. 

Point  out  all  the  reflexive  pronouns,  mention  the 
verb  or  preposition  of  which  each  is  the  object,  and 
tell  to  what  noun  or  pronoun  each  refers  back. 

1.  The  people  abandoned  themselves  to  despair. 

2.  Jack  sat  by  himself  in  a  corner. 

3.  They  have  talked  themselves  hoarse. 

4.  The  men  themselves  carried  no  provisions  except  a  bag  of 
oatmeal. 

5.  Envy  shoots  at  others,  and  wounds  herself. 

6.  We  ourselves  were  wrapped  up  in  our  furs. 

7.  Clifford  wrapped  himself  in  an  old  cloak. 

8.  I  myself  am  to  blame  for  this. 

9.  I  shall  hardly  know  myself  in  a  blue  dress. 

10.  I  have  not  words  to  express  the  poor  man's  thankfulness, 
neither  could  he  express  it  himself. 

11.  Every  guilty  deed  holds  in  itself  the  seed  of  retribution. 

12.  Jane  herself  opened  the  door. 

13.  She  amused  herself  with  walking  and  reading. 

14.  The  story  itself  was  scarcely  credible. 

15.  The  lieutenant  was  presented  to  Washington  himself. 

16.  Nobody  save  myself  so  much  as  turned  to  look  after  him. 

17.  One  seldom  dislikes  one's  serf. 

18.  The  guides  themselves  had  lost  the  path. 

19.  The  prisoner  threw  himself  into  the  sea  and  swam  for 
the  shore. 

20.  The  old  clock  itself  looked  weary. 

21.  Guard  thyself  from  false  friends. 

22.  You  must  prepare  yourself  for  the  worst. 

23.  You  cannot  protect  yourselves  from  wrong. 


THE   SELF-PRONOUNS.  199 

CHAPTER    LXXXVIII. 

SPECIAL   USES    OF   THE   SELF-PRONOUNS. 

363.  The  adjective  own  is  sometimes  inserted  between 
the  first  and  the  second  part  of  the  self-pronouns  for 
emphasis.  These  forms  may  be  regarded  as  compound 
pronouns. 

Examples  :  my  own  self,  your  own  self,  his  own  self,  your 
own  selves,  their  own  selves. 

364.  The  intensive  pronouns  are  sometimes  used  idio- 
matically without  being  immediately  preceded  by  a  noun 
or  pronoun.     Thus,  — 

It  is  myself. 

Here  myself  \s  equivalent  to  I  myself  . 

365.  In  older  English  and  in  poetry  intensive  pro- 
nouns often  stand  by  themselves  in  constructions  in 
which  ordinary  English  would  require  the  use  of  a  sim- 
ple personal  pronoun  before  the  intensive.     Thus,  — 

Myself  am  king  (instead  of  I  myself  am  king). 
This  use  should  be  avoided  in  prose. 

366.  In  older  English  and  in  poetry  the  simple  per- 
sonal pronouns  are  often  used  in  a  reflexive  sense  instead 
of  the  seZ/"-pronouns.     Thus,  — 

He  laid  him  down.     [Instead  of:   He  laid  himself  &o\\\\.~] 

In  colloquial  language  this  old  construction  is  often 
retained,  but  only  in  a  few  expressions,  such  as  I  hurt 
me  (instead  of  I  hurt  myself).  It  should  be  avoided  in 
writing  and  in  careful  speech. 


200  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    LXXXIX. 

NUMERALS. 

367.  In  expressing  our  thoughts  it  is  often  necessary 
to  indicate  exactly  how  many  persons  or  things  we  are 
thinking  of,  or  how  many  times  an  action  takes  place. 
For  these  j)urposes  language  employs  certain  peculiar 
words  called  numerals,  that  is,  "  words  of  number." 

Examples  may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

Three  merry  companions  once  set  out  on  a  journey  to  Spain. 

Thirty  days  hath  September, 
April,  June,  and  November ; 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one, 
Excepting  February  alone, 
Which  has  just  eight  and  a  score, 
Till  Leap-year  gives  it  one  day  more. 

The  second  house  in  the  street  belongs  to  me. 
Seven  of  my  friends  met  me  at  the  station. 
Thrice  the  brinded  cat  hath  mewed. 

368.  Numerals  are  Adjectives,  Nouns,  or  Adverbs.        , 

In  the  preceding  examples  most  of  the  numerals  are 
adjectives,  because  they  limit  substantives.  Score,  how- 
ever, is  a  noun,  and  so  is  seven  in  the  last  example  but 
one.  Thrice  is  an  adverb,  since  it  modifies  the  verb 
hath  mewed  by  telling  how  many  times  the  action  took 
place. 

369.  Numeral  Adjectives  limit  substantives  by  defining  the 
exact  number  of  persons  or  things  thought  of. 

370.  The  most  important  classes  of  numeral  adjec- 
tives are  called  cardinals  and  ordinals. 


NUMERALS.  2U1 

371.  Cardinal  Numeral  Adjectives  {one,  two,  three,  four, 
etc.)  are  used  in  counting,  and  answer  the  question  "How 
many?"     Thus, — 

Three  wise  men  of  Gotham 
Went  to  sea  in  a  bowl. 
Thirty  days  hath  September. 
That  man  is  seventy-nine  years  old. 

372.  Ordinal  Numeral  Adjectives  (first,  second,  third, 
etc.)  denote  the  position  or  order  of  a  person  or  thing  in  a  series. 

Monday  is  the  first  day  of  the  week. 

February  is  the  second  month. 

The  child  was  in  the  third  year  of  his  age. 

373.  All  the  Cardinal  Numerals  may  be  used  as  Nouns. 

One  of  my  friends  told  me  this. 

A  million  is  a  great  number. 

Eighty-one  of  the  enemy  were  killed  in  this  skirmish. 

374.  The  cardinals,  in  some  of  their  uses  as  nouns, 
may  receive  a  plural  ending.     Thus,  — 

The  boy  can  count  by  threes. 

My  friends  came  up  in  threes  and  fours. 

Five  tens  are  fifty. 

Many  hundreds  fell  in  this  battle. 

Thousands  of  dollars  were  spent  in  this  experiment. 

Note.  —  Hundred,  thousand,  million  were  originally  nouns,  but  are 
now  equally  common  in  the  adjective  construction. 

375.  Certain  numeral  adjectives  (single,  double,  triple, 
etc.)  indicate  how  many  times  a  thing  is  taken  or  of 
how  many  like  parts  it  consists.     Thus,  — 

The  pavement  consisted  of  a  double  layer  of  bricks. 
A  threefold  cord  is  not  easily  broken. 


202  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Some  of  these  words  may  be  used  as  adverbs. 
His  labor  was  repaid  threefold. 

376.   Certain  Numeral  Adverbs  and  adverbial  phrases  indicate 
how  many  times  an  action  takes  place. 

I  hit  the  ball  once. 

John  knocked  twice  at  the  door. 

Thrice  the  bell  tolled. 

The  sharpshooter  fired  eleven  times  before  he  was  killed. 

The  only  adverbs  of  this  kind  in  common  use  are  once  and  twice.  For 
larger  numbers  a  phrase  consisting  of  a  cardinal  with  the  noun  times  is 
regularly  used.  Thrice,  however,  is  still  common  (instead  of  three  times) 
in  poetry  and  the  solemn  style. 


EXERCISE. 


Tell  whether  each  numeral  is  an  adjective  (cardinal, 
ordinal,  or  other),  a  noun,  or  an  adverb. 

1.  Twice  through  the  hall  the  chieftain  strode. 

2.  Hundreds  in  this  little  town  are  upon  the  point  of  starving. 

3.  I  have  paid  you  fourfold. 

4.  The  third  time  never  fails. 

5.  The  English  lie  within  fifteen  hundred  paces  of  your  tents. 

6.  Methought  I  saw  a  thousand  fearful  wrecks. 

7.  The  threefold  shield  protected  him. 

8.  They  shouted  thrice ;  what  was  the  last  cry  for? 

9.  Yet  thousands  still  desire  to  journey  on. 

10.  Byron  died  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 

11.  This  note  doth  tell  me  of  ten  thousand  French 

That  in  the  field  lie  slain :  of  princes,  in  this  number, 
And  nobles  bearing  banners,  there  lie  dead 
One  hundred  twenty-six :  added  to  these, 
Of  knights,  esquires,  and  gallant  gentlemen, 
Eight  thousand  and  four  hundred. 


REVIEW  EXERCISE.  203 


EXERCISE.* 


Explain    the    forms    and  constructions    of    the    sub- 
stantives, adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

1.  Will  you  shake  hands  with  me  now? 

2.  Delay  not,  Caesar !     Read  it  instantly ! 

3.  Do  you  not  know  that  every  hard,  cold  word  you  use  is 
one  stone  on  a  great  pyramid  of  useless  remorse? 

4.  Lay  thy  finger  on  thy  lips. 

5.  Have  you  ever  had  your  house  burnt  down  ? 

6.  Did  you  take  me  for  Roger  Bacon  ? 

7.  What,  has  this  thing  appeared  again  to-night? 

8.  Our  neighbor's  big  black  mastiff  sprang  over  the  fence. 

9.  Theodore's  cousin  has  just  returned  from  Asia. 

10.  The  jay's  noisy  chatter  silenced  our  talk. 

11.  The  old  pilot's  skill  saved  the  ship  from  destruction. 

12.  I  owe  you  much  already. 

13.  They  shall  fetch  thee  jewels  from  the  deep. 

14.  I  sell  thee  poison ;  thou  hast  sold  me  none. 

15.  Sing  high  the  praise  of  Denmark's  host. 

16.  Pen  never  told  his  mother  a  falsehood. 

17.  Last  night  the  very  gods  showed  me  a  vision. 

18.  He  strode  down  the  creaking  stair. 

19.  The  ruling  passion  conquers  reason  still. 

20.  Four  seasons  fill  the  measure  of  the  year. 

21.  He  feels  the  anxieties  of  life. 

22.  The  long  carpets  rose  along  the  gusty  floor. 

23.  The  needle  plies  its  busy  task. 

24.  I  spent  some  time  in  Holland. 

25.  Great  offices  will  have  great  talents. 

*  Here  the  inflection  of  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs 
(pp.  138-202)  should  he  reviewed.  §§  237-242  will  serve  as  a  summary, 
and  should  accordingly  be  studied  at  this  point.  The  miscellaneous  sen- 
tences on  this  page  give  examples  of  various  forms  and  constructions  and 
may  be  used  for  practice  in  parsing  and  analysis  at  the  close  of  the  review. 


204  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   XC. 

INFLECTION   OF   VERBS. —  TENSE. 

377.  Compare  the  following  sentences  :  — 

Queen  Victoria  rules  over  England. 
Queen  Elizabeth  ruled  over  England. 

(1)  Rules  and  ruled  are  really  the  same  verb  with 
different  endings. 

(2)  Rules  refers  to  the  present  time  and  ruled  refers 
to  past  time. 

In  other  words,  the  difference  between  rules  and  ruled 
is  a  difference  in  ending  that  indicates  a  difference  in  the 
time  of  the  action. 

Similarly,  we  can  distinguish  between  the  time  re- 
ferred to  by  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  pairs :  — 

Come,  came  ;  bind,  bound  ;   kill,  killed  ; 
Dwell,  dwelt ;  walk,  walked ;  fill,  filled. 

This  distinction  of  time  in  verbs  is  called  tense. 

The  word  tense  is  simply  an  English  form  of  the  French  word  for  time. 

378.  Every  action,  of  course,  must  take  j)lace  at  the 
present  time,  in  past  time,  or  in  future  time. 

379.  Verbs  have  distinction  of  Tense  to  indicate  Present,  Past, 
or  Future  time. 

A  verb  in  the  Present  Tense  refers  to  Present  Time. 
A  verb  in  the  Preterite  Tense  refers  to  Past  Time.* 
A  verb  in  the  Future  Tense  refers  to  Future  Time. 

*  Preterite  is  from  the  Latin,  and  means  simply  "gone  by,"  "past." 
Preterite  is  a  better  name  for  the  tense  than  past,  for  both  the  perfect  and 
the  pluperfect  tenses  refer  to  past  time  as  well  as  the  preterite. 


PRETERITE    TENSE.  205 

CHAPTER    XCI. 

PRETERITE   TENSE. 

380.  The  present  and  the  preterite  tense  have  special 
forms  of  inflection. 

For  the  moment  we  will  consider,  in  both  of  these 
tenses,  the  form  which  the  verb  has  when  its  subject  is 
the  first  personal  pronoun  7. 

381.  In  the  Present  Tense  the  verb  appears  in  its  simplest 
form,  without  any  inflectional  ending. 

I  walk  along  the  street.  I  dwell  in  this  world. 

I  answer  all  questions.  I  drink  water. 

382.  If  we  change  the  verbs  in  the  foregoing  sen- 
tences (§  381)  so  that  they  shall  express  past  instead  of 
present  time,  the  sentences  will  read  as  follows :  — 

I  walked  along  the  street.  I  dwelt  in  this  wor'd. 

I  answered  all  questions.  I  drank  water. 

All  these  forms,  walked,  anstvered,  dwelt,  drank,  are 
then  in  the  preterite  tense. 


ent  Tense 

Preterite  Tense 

walk 

walked 

answer 

answered 

dwell 

dwelt 

drink 

drank 

(1)  The  verbs  walk  and  answer  form  their  preterite 
tense  by  adding  -ed  to  the  present. 

(2)  The  verb  dwell  forms  its  preterite  tense  by  adding 
-t  to  the  present  (omitting  one  I). 

(3)  The  verb  drink  forms  its  preterite  tense  by  chang- 
ing the  vowel  i  of  the  present  to  a,  and  adds  no  ending. 


206  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

383.  The  Preterite  Tense  is  formed  in  one  of  two  ways : 

(i)  By  adding  to  the  .present  tense  the  ending  -ed,  -d,  or  -t; 
(2)  By  changing  the  vowel  of  the  present  tense  without  the 
addition  of  an  ending. 

According  as  verbs  form  their  preterite  tense  in  one 
or  the  other  of  these  two  ways,  they  are  called  (1)  weak 
verbs,  or  (2)  strong  verbs. 

384.  Weak  verbs  form  the  preterite  tense  by  adding  -ed, 
-d,  or  -t  to  the  present. 

Examples  :  fill,  filled ;  stay,  stayed ;  bless,  blessed ;  dwell, 
dwelt ;  defend,  defended ;  select,  selected  ;  compare,  compared. 

385.  Strong  Verbs  form  the  preterite  tense  by  changing  the 
vowel  of  the  present,  without  the  addition  of  an  ending. 

Examples  :  sing,  sang ;  spin,  spun ;  win,  won ;  fall,  fell ; 
ride,  rode ;    shine,  shone ;    bear,  bore ;    tear,  tore.* 

Weak  verbs  are  sometimes  called  regular,  and  strong 
verbs  irregular  verbs. t 

386.  The  terms  strong  and  weak  were  first  applied  to  verbs 
for  a  somewhat  fanciful  reason.  The  strong  verbs  were  so  called 
because  they  seemed  to  form  the  preterite  tense  out  of  their  own 
resources,  without  calling  to  their  assistance  any  ending.  The 
weak  verbs  were  so  called  because  they  were  incapable  of  form- 
ing their  preterites  without  the  aid  of  the  ending  -ed,  -d,  or  -t. 

*  Silent  -e  in  bore,  tore,  etc.,  is  not  counted  as  an  ending. 

t  A  strong  verb  is  really  just  as  regular  as  a  weak  verb :  that  is  to  say, 
all  strong  verbs  form  their  preterites  in  accordance  with  definite  rules 
and  not  in  obedience  to  mere  chance.  To  ascertain  these  rules,  however, 
requires  a  long  study,  not  merely  of  the  English  language,  but  of  several 
other  languages,  like  German  and  the  Scandinavian  tongues,  with  which 
English  is  closely  related.  The  student  who  is  beginning  the  study  of 
English  grammar,  therefore,  must  learn  the  forms  of  the  strong  verbs  as 
separate  facts,  without  much  regard  to  the  reasons  for  their  existence. 


PRETERITE    TENSE.  207 


EXERCISE. 


Change  all  the  presents  to  preterites.  Tell  whether 
each  preterite  that  you  have  made  is  weak  or  strong. 

1.  I  ride  to  Hyde  Park. 

2.  The  country  becomes  disturbed,  and  nightly  meetings  of 
the  peasantry  take  place. 

3.  Many  of  the  boldest  sink  beneath  the  fear  of  betrayal. 

4.  When  Calabressa  calls  at  the  house  in  Curzon  Street  he  is 
at  once  admitted. 

5.  He  walks  on,  his  heart  full  of  an  audacious  joy. 

6.  Returning  to  the  cottage,  he  proceeds  to  sweep  the  hearth 
and  make  up  the  fire. 

7.  Where  the  remote  Bermudas  ride 
In  the  Ocean's  kjf|flm  unespied, 
From  a  smalJ*Boat  that  rows  along, 
The  listening  winds  receive  this  song. 

8.  Many  fresh  streams  run  to  one  salt  sea. 

9.  The  camels  from  their  keepers  break  ; 
The  distant  steer  forsakes  the  yoke. 

10.  Lady  Evelyn  is  a  tall,  somewhat  good-looking,  elderly  lady, 
who  wears  her  silver-white  hair  in  old-fashioned  curls. 

11.  His  faded  yellow  hair  begins  to  grow  thin,  and  his  thread- 
bare frock  coat  hangs  limp  from  sloping  shoulders. 

12.  I  wander  lonely  as  a  cloud. 

13.  The  next  morning  he  comes  down  to  the  breakfast  room 
earlier  than  is  his  custom,  and  salutes  everybody  there  with  great 
cordiality. 

14.  To  the  belfry,  one  by  one,  haste  the  ringers. 

15.  No  haughty  feat  of  arms  I  tell. 

16.  The  senators  mean  to  establish  Ca?sar  as  a  king. 

17.  I  rest  two  or  three  minutes,  and  then  give  the  boat  another 
shove,  and  so  on,  till  the  sea  is  no  higher  than  my  armpits. 

18.  His  heart  jumps  with  pleasure  as  the  famous  university 
comes  in  view. 


208  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XCII. 

PRETERITE  TENSE  OF  STRONG  VERBS. 

387.  The  definition  of  a  Strong  Verb  has  already  been 
given  in  §  385. 

Strong  Verbs  form  the  preterite  tense  by  changing  the  vowel 
of  the  present,  without  the  addition  of  an  ending. 

Examples  :  sing,  pret.  sang ;  drink,  pret.  drank ;  write,  pret. 
wrote  ;  bear,  pret.  bore.* 

388.  The  strong  verbs  are  an  exceedingly  important 
element  in  our  language.  Many  of  the  weak  verbs 
might  disappear  without  being  missed,  but  there  are 
very  few  of  the  strong  verbs  that  we  could  conven- 
iently spare.  For  these  verbs  express,  for  the  most  part, 
simple  and  fundamental  ideas  with  which  the  language 
of  everyday  life  is  constantly  occupied. 

Thus,  among  the  strong  verbs  are  such  essential 
words  as  :  eat,  drink,  stand,  rise,  fall,  ride,  find,  break. 

389.  The  strong  preterites,  which  appear  so  irregular 
and  accidental  to  us,  were  originally  formed  in  accord- 
ance with  definite  principles  of  language,  and  in  the 
oldest  English  (Anglo-Saxon)  it  is  easy  to  classify  them. 
In  the  course  of  time,  however,  the  old  classes  have 
become  confused  so  that  the  strong  verbs  seem  no 
longer  to  follow  any  rules. 

A  full  list  of  the  strong  verbs  is  given  in  the  Appendix 
(pp.  386-393)  for  reference. 

*  Some  strong  verbs  have  in  the  preterite  a  silent  final  e  which  does 
not  appear  in  the  present,  but  this  is  not  properly  an  ending.  Thus: 
break,  broke;  wear,  wore;  bear,  bore;  tear,  tore. 


WEAK  PRETERITES.  209 

CHAPTER    XCIII. 

WEAK   PRETERITES   IN   -ED   OR  -D. 

390.  Most  weak  verbs  form  their  Preterite  in  -ed. 

Examples  :  act,  acted  ;  mend,  mended  ;  jump,  jumped  ;  con- 
fess, confessed ;  regard,  regarded ;  attend,  attended. 

In  modern  English,  e  in  the  ending  -ed,  though  writ- 
ten, is  silent  unless  preceded  by  d  or  t. 

Thus,  we  write  filled,  but  pronounce  fill'd;  we  write  knocked, 
but  pronounce  knockt. 

If,  however,  the  present  ends  in  -t  or  -d  (as  in  request, 
command),  the  preterite  ending  -ed  is  fully  pronounced 

(requested,  commanded). 

Otherwise  the  preterite  would  not  differ  in  pronunciation  from 
the  present,  for  we  cannot  pronounce  request'd  or  command' d  so 
as  to  distinguish  it  from  request  or  command. 

391.  A  few  verbs  add  -d  (not  -ed)  in  the  preterite 
and  also  show  a  change  of  vowel. 

Examples  :  sell,  sold ;  tell,  told  ;  flee,  fled ;  shoe,  shod ;  hear, 
heard  (pronounced  herd)  ;  say,  said. 

392.  Make  has  made  in  the  preterite,  and  have  has 
had. 


EXERCISE. 


Make  sentences  containing  the  preterites  of  the  follow- 
ing weak  verbs  :  — 

Act,  govern,  rush,  knock,  fish,  tend,  tell,  rattle,  carry,  delay, 
flee,  try,  address,  pitch,  talk,  experiment,  describe,  rebel. 


210  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    XCIV. 

WEAK   PRETERITES    IN   -T. 

393.  Many  weak  verbs  form  the  preterite  tense  in  -t.* 
Examples  :  dwell,  dwelt ;  feel,  felt  ;  keep,  kept ;  leave,  left. 
Most  verbs  of  this  £-class  show  special  irregularities. 

394.  Some  verbs  that  have  a  long  vowel  sound  in  the 
present  have  in  the  preterite  a  short  vowel  sound  before 
the  ending  -t. 

Examples  :  creep,  crept  ;  keep,  kept ;  sleep,  slept ;  sweep, 
swept ;  weep,  wept  ;  feel,  felt ;  deal,  dealt  (pronounced  delt)  ; 
mean,  meant  (pronounced  ment)  ;  lose,  lost ;  leave,  left.f 

395.  Some  verbs  in  -nd  and  -Id  form  their  preterite 
tense  by  changing  this  -d  to  -t. 

Examples  :  bend,  bent ;  send,  sent  ;  lend,  lent ;  rend,  rent ; 
spend,  spent ;  build,  built. 

396.  A  few  weak  verbs  not  only  add  -t  in  the  preter- 
ite, but  also  change  the  vowel  of  the  present  and  show 
other  irregularities.     These  are  :  — 


bring 

brought 

beseech 

besought 

buy 

bought 

teach 

taught 

catch 

caught 

think 

thought 

seek 

sought 

methinks 

methought 

Work  has  an  old  preterite  tense  wrought,  common  in  poetry  ; 
its  usual  preterite  is  worked.     For  must,  would,  etc.,  see  page  393. 

*  As  we  have  seen,  the  ending  -ed  often  stands  for  the  sound  of  -t ;  as 
passed,  pronounced  pasi.  In  such  forms  the  ending,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  spoken  language,  is  of  course  -t. 

t  In  leave  and  bereave  ohserve  also  the  difference  of  sound  between  v 
and  /.     For  the  irregular  weak  verhs  see  Appendix. 


WEAK  PRETERITES.  211 

CHAPTER   XCV. 

WEAK   PRETERITES   WITHOUT   ENDING. 

397.  Some  weak  verbs  in  -d  or  -t  preceded  by  a  long 
vowel  sound  have  a  short  vowel  in  the  preterite  but  add 
no  ending. 

Examples  :  bleed,  bled  ;  breed,  bred ;  feed,  fed  ;  speed,  sped  ; 
lead,  led  ;  read  (pronounced  reed),  read  (pronounced  red)  ;  meet, 
met;  shoot,  shot;  light,  lit  {also  lighted). 

398.  Some  weak  verbs  in  -d  or  -t  have  in  the  preterite 
the  same  form  as  in  the  present. 

Examples  :  shed,  pret.  shed ;  spread,  pret.  spread ;  bet,  pret. 
bet;  hit,  pret.  hit;  set,  pret.  set;  spit,  pret.  spit;  put,  pret.  put; 
shut,  pret.  shut ;  cut,  pret.  cut ;  hurt,  pret.  hurt ;  cast,  pret.  cast. 

Note. — The  verbs  described  in  §§  397  and  398  might  at  first  appear  to 
be  strong  verbs,  since  they  have  no  ending  in  the  preterite  and  change  the 
vowel.  They  are,  however,  all  weak  verbs.  Their  lack  of  ending  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  d  or  t  of  the  termination  has  been  absorbed  in  the  final 
d  or  t  of  the  verb  itself.  Thus,  the  preterite  set  was  originally  sett'e  (dis- 
syllabic), and  this  form,  after  the  loss  of  -e,  became  indistinguishable  in 
60und  from  set,  the  present. 


EXERCISES. 
I. 

Make  sentences  containing  the  preterite  tense  of  the 
following  verbs,  some  of  which  are  weak  and  some  strong. 

Bend,  sell,  act,  review,  try,  spin,  drink,  eat,  carry,  lose,  compel, 
read,  lead,  tread,  leave,  work,  spend,  know,  set,  sit,  lie,  lay,  rend, 
bring,  rear,  arise,  ring,  break,  bind,  copy,  spare,  multiply,  catch, 
divide,  subtract,  telegraph,  strike,  run,  wrestle,  blow,  burst,  climb, 
sing,  begin,  stand,  understand,  go,  change,  teach,  reach,  split. 


212  THE    MOTHER    TONGUE. 

II. 

Pick  out  all  the  preterites,  and  tell  whether  they  are 
weak  or  strong.     Give  the  present  tense  in  each  case. 

When  midnight  drew  near,  and  when  the  robbers  from  afar  saw 
that  no  light  was  burning  and  that  everything  appeared  quiet, 
their  captain  said  to  them  that  he  thought  that  they  had  run 
away  without  reason,  telling  one  of  them  to  go  and  reconnoitre. 
So  one  of  them  went,  and  found  everything  quite  quiet.  He  went 
into  the  kitchen  to  strike  a  light,  and,  taking  the  glowing  fiery 
eyes  of  the  cat  for  burning  coals,  he  held  a  match  to  them  in 
order  to  kindle  it.  But  the  cat,  not  seeing  the  joke,  flew  into  his 
face,  spitting  and  scratching. 

in. 

Fill  each  blank  with  a  preterite.  Tell  whether  each 
preterite  is  weak  or  strong. 

1.  The  hunter  took  careful  aim  and ;  but  the  deer 

away  unharmed. 

2.  A  portrait  of  Mr.  Gilbert on  the  wall. 

3.  I my  companion  to  lend  me  his  knife. 

4.  In  the  distance the  lights  of  the  village. 

5.  The  sailor into  the  sea  and to  the  rescue. 

•    6.  The  boy on  the  burning  deck. 

N  7.  The  kite majestically  into  the  air. 

8.  A  puff  of  wind off  the  boy's  cap  and  it along  the 

ground.     He after  it  as  fast  as  he  could.     The  faster  he 

the  faster  the  cap 


> 


9.  The  mischievous  fellow three  leaves  out  of  my  book. 

10.  The  maid the  bucket  with  water  and it  to  the 

thirsty  wayfarers. 

11.  Tom on  a  rock,  fishing  patiently. 

12.  The  miser a  hole  to  conceal  his  treasure. 

13.  Joe the  tree  to  get  some  apples. 


NUMBER    OF  VERBS.  '21'6 

CHAPTER   XCVL 

SINGULAR  AND   PLURAL  VERBS. 

399.  Nouns  and  pronouns,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be 
of  either  the  singular  or  the  plural  number.  The  same  is 
true  of  verbs.     Thus,  in 

The  officer  encourages  his  men  ; 
He  speaks  good  German, 

the  verbs  encourages  and  speaks  are,  like  their  subjects 
officer  and  he,  in  the  singular  number. 

But  if  we  change  the  subjects  of  these  sentences  to 
the  plural  number,  we  find  ourselves  obliged  to  change 
the  form  of  the  verbs  also. 

The  officers  encourage  their  men. 
They  speak  good  German. 

Here  the  verbs,  as  well  as  the  subjects,  are  in  the  plural. 

400.  A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  Subject  in  Number. 

The  importance  of  this  rule  may  be  seen  from  the 
bad  results  of  breaking  it.  We  immediately  recognize 
the  following  sentences  as  ungrammatical :  — 

All  the  men  |  goes  to  church.     The  child  \  are  sick. 
He  |  are  a  good  fellow.  They  |  is  all  feeble. 

The  soldiers  |  marches.  The  soldier  |  march. 

All  these  sentences  strike  us  at  once  as  very  bad. 
The  reason  is  that  in  none  of  them  does  the  verb  agree 
with  its  subject  in  number.  We  can  correct  the  sentence 
in  each  case  by  changing  the  number  of  the  verb  from 
singular  to  plural  or  from  plural  to  singular. 


214  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 

I. 

Fill  the  blanks  with  a  singular  or  a  plural  verb  in  the 
present  tense. 

Tell  which  number  you  have  used  in  each  sentence. 

1.  I sorry  to  hear  of  your  misfortune. 

2.  We ball  every  Saturday  afternoon. 

3.  He the  strongest  swimmer  in  the  school. 

4.  They very  good  friends  of  mine. 

5.  It a  great  deal  of  money  to  build  a  railroad. 

6.  John  and  Tom  always  — to  school  together. 

7.  Birds ;  fishes ;  snakes ;  dogs on  four 

legs  ;  mankind  alone upright. 

8.  You  so  badly  that  I  can  hardly  read  your  letter. 

Your  brother much  better. 

9.  The  farmer the  seed ;  but  the  sun  and  the  rain 

it  grow. 

10.  My  uncle me  a  dollar  whenever  he  to  visit  us. 

11.  Kangaroos very  long  hind  legs. 

12.  A  spider eight  legs  ;  a  beetle six. 

13.  My  pony apples  out  of  my  hand. 

14.  The  grocer tea,  sugar,  salt,  and  molasses. 

15.  The  company  of  soldiers up  the  hill  in  the  face  of 

the  enemy. 

16.  The  grapes in  clusters  on  the  vine. 

II. 

In  the  Exercise  on  page  182,  point  out  all  the  subjects 
and  all  the  objects. 

Mention  the  number  of  each  substantive  and  of  each 

verb. 

in. 

Do  the  same  in  Exercise  n,  p.  193. 


NUMBER    OF  VERBS.  215 

CHAPTER   XCVIL* 

SPECIAL    RULES    FOR   THE   NUMBER   OF   VERBS. 

401.  A  Compound  Subject  usually  takes  a  verb  in  the  Plural 
Number. 

The  king  and  his  son  fear  treachery. 

Thomas  and  I  are  friends. 

The  dog  and  the  cat  have  no  liking  for  each  other. 

402.  A  compound  subject  expressing  but  a  single 
idea  sometimes  takes  a  verb   in  the  singular  number. 

The  sole  end  and  aim  of  his  life  was  to  get  money. 

This  construction  is  comparatively  rare  in  modern  English,  and  should 
be  used  with  great  caution.  It  is  for  the  most  part  confined  to  such  idio- 
matic phrases  as  end  and  aim  (equivalent  to  the  single  noun  purpose),  the 
long  and  short  of  it,  etc. 

403.  Nouns  that  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense 
commonly  take  a  verb  in  the  Singular  Number. 

The  news  is  good.     Bad  news  travels  fast. 
Mathematics  is  my  favorite  study. 
Measles  is  a  troublesome  disease. 

In  the  older  language  most  of  these  words  were  felt  as  plurals  and 
accordingly  took  a  plural  verb.  Thus,  about  1600,  we  find  both  "  This 
news  is  good,"  and  "  These  news  are  good,"  for  at  this  time  the  word  news 
was  still  felt  to  mean  "  new  things,"  and  hence  was  sometimes  plural  in 
sense  as  well  as  in  form. 

404.  With  regard  to  some  words  of  this  class  usage 
varies.  Thus,  pains,  in  the  sense  of  care  or  effort,  is 
sometimes  regarded  as  a  singular  and  sometimes  as  a 
plural.     For  example,  — 

Great  pains  has  (or  have)  been  taken  to  accomplish  this. 

*  This  chapter  may  be  omitted  until  review. 


216  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

405.  Collective  Nouns  take  sometimes  a  Singular  and  some- 
times a  Plural  verb. 

When  the  persons  or  things  denoted  are  thought  of  as  individ- 
uals, the  plural  should  be  used.  When  the  collection  is  conceived 
as  a  unit,  the  singular  should  be  used. 

406.  The  distinction  made  in  the  foregoing  rule 
(§  405)  is  observed  by  careful  writers  and  is  conse- 
quently a  matter  of  some  importance.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  the  choice  between  the  singular  and 
the  plural  depends  upon  the  feeling  of  the  moment. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  this  distinction :  — 

1.  The  people  of  the  United  States  are  discussing  this  question 
with  great  interest. 

[Here  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  thought  of  not  as  a 
whole  (or,  as  we  say,  collectively),  but  as  a  number  of  individuals 
holding  different  opinions  and  engaged  in  a  lively  debate.  Hence 
the  verb  is  in  the  plural.] 

2.  The  sovereign  people  is  the  final  authority  in  a  republic. 

[Here  the  people  is  thought  of  as  a  single,  all-powerful  source 
of  political  authority.     Hence  the  verb  is  in  the  singular.] 

3.  The  committee  is  of  opinion  that  this  measure  ought  not  to 
pass. 

[Here  the  committee,  being  unanimous,  or  at  any  rate  having 
come  to  some  agreement  amongst  its  members,  expresses  itself  with 
a  single  voice  as  if  one  man  were  speaking  for  all.  Hence  the 
singular  verb  is  proper.] 

4.  The  committee  are  both  individually  and  collectively  much 
opposed  to  this  measure. 

[Here  the  use  of  the  word  individually  calls  attention  at  once  to 
the  fact  that  the  committee  consists  of  a  number  of  persons  who 
think  and  feel  as  individuals ;  hence  the  plural  are  is  natural.] 


PERSON    OF    VERBS.  217 

CHAPTER   XCVIII. 

PERSON   OF   VERBS. 

407.  Compare  the  following  sentences  :  — 

I  walk.     Thou  walkest.     He  walks. 

(1)  The  three  pronouns  I,  thou,  and  he  refer  to  differ- 
ent persons:  /denotes  the  speaker;  thou  denotes  the  per- 
son spoken  to;  he  denotes  neither  the  speaker  nor  the 
person  spoken  to,  but  some  third  person  whom  we  may 
call  the  person  spoken  of.      (Cf.  p.  152.) 

(2)  The  form  of  the  verb  walk  changes  according  as 
this  verb  is  used  with  I,  thou,  or  he  as  its  subject. 

(3)  If  we  change  any  one  of  the  verb-forms  without 
at  the  same  time  changing  the  pronoun,  the  sentence 
becomes  bad  English.  -We  cannot  say  I  walkest,  or  / 
walks,  or  he  walk. 

(4)  If  we  change  the  subject  of  the  sentence  to  a  noun 
in  the  singular  number,  the  verb  will  take  the  same  form 
that  it  has  when  the  subject  is  he.     Thus,  — 

He  walks.     John  walks. 

408.  Substantives  and  Verbs  are  distinguished  as  to  Person. 

409.  There  are  three  Persons :  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

The  First  Person  denotes  the  speaker ;  the  Second  Person  de- 
notes the  person  spoken  to ;  the  Third  Person  denotes  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  of. 

410.  A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  Person. 

411.  We  may  now  include  in  one  rule  the  principle 
of  agreement  between  a  verb  and  its  subject  as  ex- 
plained in  §§  399  and  407  :  — 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  Number  and  Person. 


218  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Write  an  account  of  some  accident  or  adventure 
that  you  have  had  or  that  you  have  heard  of. 

If  you  have  written  in  the  first  person,  change  your 
story  so  that  it  shall  be  told  of  some  other  person. 

What  changes  have  you  made  in  the  form  of  each  verb? 

If  you  have  told  your  story  in  the  third  person,  imagine 
that  the  adventure  happened  to  you,  and  write  the  story 
again  in  the  first  person. 

What  changes  have  you  made  in  the  form  of  each  verb? 

ii. 

Find  some  story  in  your  history  or  reading  book. 
Imagine  that  the  incidents  related  happened  to  you, 
and  tell  the  story  in  the  first  person. 

What  changes  have  you  made  in  the  form  of  each  verb? 

in. 

Tell  the  person  and  number  of  each  of  the  verbs  and 
verb-phrases  below.  If  the  form  may  belong  to  more 
than  one  person  or  number,  mention  all. 

Test  your  accuracy  by  using  personal  pronouns  (I, 
you,  they,  etc.)  with  each  form. 

Found,  didst  know,  finds,  acts,  act,  mentions,  sells,  sold, 
broughtest,  brings,  bringest,  speak,  spoke,  broke,  endeavors,  dives, 
replied,  puzzled,  utters,  knowest,  hath,  has,  canst,  can,  is,  are, 
leapest,  fight,  fought,  has  spoken,  have,  am,  art,  were. 

IV. 

In  some  page  of  your  reading  book  find  all  the 
presents  and  preterites  you  can.  Tell  the  person  and 
number  of  each. 


PERSONAL  ENDINGS.  219 

CHAPTER    XCIX. 

PERSONAL  ENDINGS.   - 

412.  We  may  now  gather  up  what  we  have  learned 
in  the  preceding  Exercises  and  state  it  in  an  orderly 
manner. 

413.  Verbs  change  their  form  to  indicate  Person  and  Number. 

414.  The  endings  by  means  of  which  a  verb  indicates  Person 
and  Number  are  called  Personal  Endings. 

In  the  Present  Tense  a  verb  has  two  Personal  Endings  :  —  est 
for  the  Second  Person  Singular  and  -s  for  the  Third  Person 
Singular  (old  form,  -eth). 

The  First  Person  Singular  and  all  three  Persons  in  the  Plural 
are  alike.  The  simplest  form  of  the  verb  is  used  and  no  Personal 
Ending  is  added. 

Table  of  Personal  Endings   of   the  Present  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  walk.      (no  ending)  1.  We  walk,      (no  ending) 

2.  Thou  walk-est.  2.  You  walk.       "        " 

3.  Hewalk-s(oldform,walk-eth).    3.  They  walk.     "        " 

415.  In  the  absence  of  a  personal  ending,  the  person 
and  number  of  a  verb  are  indicated  by  its  subject. 

416.  Let  us  now  examine  the  preterite  tense  with  refer- 
ence to  the  personal  endings. 

I  walked.     Thou  walkedst.     He  (we,  you,  they)  walked. 

We  see  at  once  that  there  is  but  one  personal  ending 
in  the  preterite  :  -(e)st  in  the  second  person  singular. 
The  ending  -ed  indicates  past  time,  and  is  not  a  personal 
ending. 


220  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

417.  The  first  and  third  persons  of  the  Preterite  Singulai 
and  all  three  persons  of  the  Preterite  Plural  have  no  personal 
ending. 

418.  We  may  draw  up  the  following  table  of  the 
endings  which  verbs  take  to  distinguish  person  and  num- 
ber.     Such  endings  are  called  the  personal  endings. 

Present  Tense  Preterite  Tense 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 


1.  (no  ending)      1. 

2.  -est,  -st  2. 

3.  -s  (old,  -eth)     3. 


1.   (no  ending)    1. 

(no  ending)   2.  -est  2.  -j  (no  ending) 

3.  (no  ending)  3. 


419.  Inflection,  as  we  learned  in  §  4,  is  a  change  in  the 
form  of  a  word  to  indicate  a  change  in  its  meaning. 

Hence  these  changes  in  verb-forms  that  we  have  just 
studied  are  a  part  of  the  inflection  of  the  English  verb. 

420.  The  inflection  of  a  verb  is  called  its  conjugation ;  to 
inflect  a  verb  is  to  conjugate  it. 

In  §  414,  then,  we  have  conjugated  the  verb  walk  in 
the  present  tense. 

421.  We  are  now  prepared  to  conjugate  verbs  in  the 
preterite  tense.      Thus,  — 

Preterite  Tense 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  walked.  1.  We  walked. 

2.  Thou  walked-st.  2.  You  (or  ye)  walked. 

3.  He  walked.  3.  They  walked. 

1.  I  found.  1.  We  found. 

2.  Thou  found-est.  2.  You  (or  ye)  found. 

3.  He  found.  3.   They  found. 

Walked  is  a  weak  verb  ;  found  is  a  strong  verb. 


NUMBER   AND  PERSON.  221 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

In  accordance  with  the  model  above,  conjugate  the 
following  verbs  in  the  present  and  the  preterite 
tense  * :  — 

Love,  call,  answer,  shout,  examine,  stand,  find,  bind,  bear,  lose, 
sit,  set,  lie,  lay,  burn,  fight,  bring,  catch,  reach,  spend,  beat,  de- 
clare, read,  march,  charge,  enlarge,  despise,  praise,  honor,  foretell, 
prophesy,  enter,  depart. 

II. 

Mention  the  number  and  person  of  each  verb  in  Exer- 
cise i,  p.  155. 

in. 

Conjugate  the  following  verbs  in  the  present  tense, 
giving  all  three  persons  and  both  numbers.  Use  a  pro- 
noun as  the  subject  of  each  verb.* 

Stand,  answer,  compel,  go,  ask,  fill,  try,  succeed,  spend,  earn, 
study,  run,  rescue,  play,  climb,  flee,  retreat,  charge,  descend,  ride, 
act,  smile,  laugh,  speed,  descry,  find,  bring,  discover,  desire, 
retreat,  succeed,  drink,  lead,  bend. 

IV. 

Make  fifteen  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the 
verbs  in  in,  above :  — 

(a)  in  the  present  tense,  third  person,  singular  number ;  (5)  in 
the  third  person  plural  ;  (c)  in  the  second  person  plural ;  (d )  in 
the  first  person  plural;  (e)  in  the  preterite  tense,  first  person, 
singular  number;  (/)  in  the  third  person  plural;  (g)  in  the 
second  person  plural;  (/<)  in  the  third  person  singular. 

*  This  exercise  may  be  indefinitely  extended  according  to  the  needs  of 
the  pupils. 


222  TEE  MOTEER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    C. 

INFINITIVE. 

422.  The  verb-forms  hitherto  discussed  have  all  been 
such  as,  in  connected  speech,  have  subjects.  That  is, 
they  have  been  forms  that  not  only  express  an  action  or 
state,  but  are  also  capable  of  asserting  it  with  reference 
to  some  person  or  thing.     Thus,  in 

The  whale  smashed  the  boat  with  his  tail, 

the  verb  smashed  not  merely  expresses  the  action  of 
breaking  to  pieces,  but  it  asserts  that  the  subject,  the 
whale,  actually  performed  that  action  in  a  given  instance. 

423.  There  are,  however,  two  important  classes  of 
words  which,  though  counted  among  verb-forms,  can 
never  have  subjects,*  and  are  incapable  of  asserting  an 
action  or  a  state.  They  are  called  infinitives  and  parti- 
ciples.    We  must  first  give  our  attention  to  infinitives. 

424.  Let  us  examine  the  following  sentence  :  — 

The  boy  runs  to  see  the  fire. 
We  at  once  recognize  see  as  a  verb-form.     It  expresses 
action  and  takes  a  direct  object,  fire.     But  we  also  ob- 
serve two  peculiarities  which  distinguish  it,  at  a  glance, 
from  runs,  the  other  verb  in  the  sentence : 

(1)  The  verb  runs  has  a  subject,  hoy ;  whereas  see 
has  no  subject. 

(2)  Runs  is  in  the  third  person  and  singular  number, 
agreeing  with  its  subject  hoy ;  whereas  see,  having  no 
subject,  has  neither  person  nor  number. 

*  Except  in  the  so-called  "  infinitive  clause  "  (see  p.  309). 


INFINITIVE.  223 

If  we  change  the  subject  boy  to  the  plural  boys,  the 
verb  runs  must  be  changed  also,  but  nothing  will  hap- 
pen to  the  form  of  see.     Thus,  — 

The  boys  run  to  see  the  fire. 
Similarly : 

I  run  to  see  the  fire. 
We  run  to  see  the  fire. 

See,  then,  in  all  these  sentences  expresses  the  idea 
of  action  in  the  very  simplest  way.  It  is  free  from 
those  limitations  of  person  and  number  to  which  a  verb 
that  has  a  subject  must  conform.  For  this  reason  it  is 
called  an  infinitive,  that  is,  an  "  unlimited  "  verb-form. 

We  observe,  also,  that  see  is  introduced  by  the  prepo- 
sition to,  which  hi  this  use  is  called  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive. 

425.  The  following  sentence  will  make  clear  another 
peculiarity  of  the  infinitive  :  — 

To  obey  is  a  child's  duty. 

Here  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  to  obey,  which  we 
recognize  as  an  infinitive  with  its  sign  to.  The  infini- 
tive, then,  has  at  least  one  of  the  properties  of  a  noun : 
it  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence.  Indeed, 
without  changing  the  meaning,  we  could  substitute  the 
pure  noun  obedience  for  the  infinitive  in  this  sentence. 

Obedience  is  a  child's  duty. 

Further  study  will  show  us  that  the  infinitive  has 
other  properties  of  the  noun,  but  this  single  specimen 
is  enough  for  our  present  purpose.  Having  learned 
that  the  infinitive  has  noun  properties,  as  well  as  verb 
properties,  we  are  ready  for  the  definition. 


224  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

426.  The  Infinitive  is  a  verb-form  which  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  a  noun.  It  expresses  action  or  state  in  the  simplest 
possible  way,  without  the  limitations  of  person  or  number. 

It  is  commonly  preceded  by  the  preposition  to,  which  in  this 
use  is  called  the  Sign  of  the  Infinitive. 

Strictly  speaking,  to  love,  to  speak,  and  the  like  are  infinitive  phrases, 
consisting  of  the  infinitive  {love,  speak)  and  the  preposition.  For  con- 
venience, however,  we  often  speak  of  the  whole  phrase  as  the  infinitive, 
as  if  the  preposition  were  actually  a  part  of  the  infinitive  itself. 

Note.  —  Historically  considered,  the  infinitive  is  not  a  verb  at  all,  but 
a  noun  expressing  action  or  state.  Its  real  nature  comes  out  if  we  com- 
pare "  To  err  is  human  "  with  "  Error  is  human  ";  "I  have  a  horse  to 
sell "  with  "  I  have  a  horse  for  sale  " ;  "I  desire  to  see  it  "  with  "  I  desire 
a  sight  of  it."  Yet  the  infinitive  is  so  closely  associated  in  our  minds  with 
the  genuine  verb  that  it  would  be  unwise  to  refuse  to  admit  it  to  a  place 
among  verb-forms.  Such  a  classification  is  in  a  manner  justified  by  three 
important  considerations :  (1)  the  infinitive  is  modified,  as  verbs  are,  by 
adverbs  and  not,  like  nouns,  by  adjectives;  (2)  it  behaves  like  a  verb  in 
taking  one  or  more  objects  when  its  meaning  allows ;  (3)  finally,  the  infini- 
tive is  systematically  used  to  make  certain  verb-phrases  (like  the  so-called 
future  tense)  which  supply  the  lack  of  genuine  inflections  in  the  English 
verb,  and  this  would  in  itself  be  a  strong  reason  for  classifying  it  as  a 
verb-form. 


EXERCISES. 
1. 

Make  sentences  of  your  own  containing  the  follow- 
ing infinitives  :  — 

To  boast,  to  help,  to  leap,  to  fly,  to  flee,  to  lie,  to  lay,  to  ask, 
to  advise,  to  assist,  to  order,  to  revenge,  to  describe,  to  injure,  to 
disappear,  to  lose,  to  advance,  to  recognize,  to  travel,  to  transform, 
to  spare,  to  suggest,  to  pursue,  to  remember,  to  remind,  to  define, 
to  desert,  to  settle,  to  build,  to  plant,  to  exterminate,  to  destroy,  to 
cultivate,  to  sow,  to  reap,  to  mow,  to  pacify,  to  burn,  to  descend, 
to  modify,  to  persevere,  to  forgive,  to  puzzle,  to  explain. 


INFINITIVE.  225 

II. 

Insert  an  infinitive  with  to  in  each  blank. 

Example  :  —  Tom  is  too  tired his  lesson. 

Tom  is  too  tired  to  study  his  lesson. 

1.  Old  Carlo  was  too  well  trained cats. 

2.  Charles  was  in  such  a  hurry  that  he  could  hardly  spare 
time his  breakfast. 

3.  We  are  taught our  enemies. 

4.  Gerald  rose  very  early  and  went  down  to  the  brook 

for  trout. 

5.  Little  Bo-Peep  has  lost  her  sheep, 
And  does  n't  know  where them. 

6.  The  fireman  was  obliged from  the  locomotive  to  save 

his  life. 

7.  The  careless  fellow  has  forgotten the  door. 

8.  Our  orders  were against  the  enemy  at  daybreak. 

9.  Commodore  Dewey  did  not  hesitate  into  Manila  Bay. 

10.  The  performing  bear  stood  up  on  his  hind  legs  and  began 

clumsily. 

III. 

Find  the  infinitives. 

1.  Lord  Craven  did  me  the  honor  to  inquire  for  me  by  name. 

2.  Distress  at  last  forced  him  to  leave  the  country. 

3.  I  know  not  what  to  think  of  it. 

4.  Our  next  care  was  to  bring  this  booty  home  without  meet- 
ing with  the  enemy. 

5.  To  see  judiciously  requires  no  small  skill  in  the  seer. 

6.  The  business  of  his  own  life  is  to  dine. 

7.  The  ladies  are  to  fling  nosegays  ;  the  court  poets  to  scatter 
verses ;  the  spectators  are  to  be  all  in  full  dress. 

8.  Vathek  invited  the  old  man  to  dine,  and  even  to  remain 
some  days  in  the  palace. 

9.  Earth  seemed  to  sink  beneath,  and  heaven  above  to  fall. 


226  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CI. 

PARTICIPLES. 

427.    Let  us  examine  the  following  sentence  :  — 

The  boy  sees  in  the  courtyard  a  dog,  stretched  out  and  gnawing 
a  bone. 

We  at  once  recognize  stretched  and  gnawing  as  verb-forms. 
They  express  action,  and.  one  of  them,  gnawing,  takes  a 
direct  object,  bone.  But  we  observe,  as  in  the  infinitive 
already  studied,  two  peculiarities  which  distinguish  them, 
at  a  glance,  from  sees,  the  other  verb  in  the  sentence : 

(1)  The  verb  sees  has  a  subject,  bog;  whereas  stretched 
and  gnawing  have  no  subjects.  (Dog  is  the  direct  object 
of  sees.) 

(2)  Sees  is  in  the  third  person  and  singular  number, 
agreeing  with  its  subject  bog;  whereas  stretched  and 
gnawing,  having  no  subject,  have  neither  person  nor 
number. 

If  we  change  the  subject  bog  to  the  plural  bogs,  the 
verb  sees  must  be  changed  also,  but  nothing  will  happen 
to  the  form  of  stretched  or  to  that  of  gnawing.     Thus,  — 

The  boys  see  in  the  courtyard  a  dog,  stretched  out  and  gnawing 
a  bone. 

Similarly  we  may  make  I  (first  person)  or  you  (second 
person)  the  subject  of  the  sentence  without  changing 
stretched  and  gnawing  at  all. 

Stretched  and  gnawing,  then,  in  this  sentence  express 
the  idea  of  action  in  a  very  simple  way.  Like  the  infin- 
itive, they  are  free  from  those  limitations  of  person  and 
number  to  which  a  verb  that  has  a  subject  must  conform. 


PAR  TICIPLES.  227 

They  differ,  however,  from  infinitives  in  two  impor- 
tant respects :  — 

(1)  Their  forms  are  not  like  that  of  the  infinitive. 
They  have  endings  -ing  and  -ed,  which  the  infinitives  to 
stretch  and  to  gnaw  do  not  possess  ;  and  they  have  not 
and  cannot  have  the  infinitive  sign  to. 

(2)  They  describe  the  noun  dog,  much  as  adjectives 
would  do. 

Indeed,  without  changing  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence we  could  substitute  genuine  descriptive  adjectives 
for  stretched  and  gnawing.     Thus,  ■ — ■ 

The  boy  sees  in  the  courtyard       The  boy  sees  in  the  courtyard 
a  dog,  stretched  out  and  gnaw-  a  dog,  lean  and  fierce, 

ing  a  bone. 

From  this  resemblance  to  adjectives,  stretched  ztndgnaw- 
ing  are  called  participles  because  they  participate  (that  is, 
share)  in  the  nature  of  adjectives. 

We  have  now  learned  that  the  participle  has  adjective 
properties  as  well  as  verb  properties,  and  are  ready  for 
the  definition. 

428.  The  Participle  is  a  verb-form  which  has  no  subject, 
but  which,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective,  expresses 
action  or  state  in  such  a  way  as  to  describe  or  limit  a  sub- 
stantive.* 

*  Historically  considered  the  participle  is  not  a  verb  at  all,  but  a  verbal 
adjective  expressing  action  or  state.  Its  real  nature  comes  out  if  we  com- 
pare "  The  scholar,  desiring  praise,  studied  hard  "  with  "  The  scholar, 
eager  for  praise,  studied  hard  "  ;  "Fatigued  with  his  journey,  the  traveller 
went  to  his  room  "  with  "  Weary  from  his  journey,  the  traveller  went  to 
his  room."  Yet  the  participle  is  commonly  and  conveniently  classified 
among  verb-forms  for  reasons  similar  to  those  already  given  with  regard 
to  the  infinitive  (p.  224).  Like  the  infinitive,  the  participle  is  very  impor- 
tant iu  making  verb-phrases  which  supply  the  place  of  inflections. 


228  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

A 

EXERCISE. 

Examples  of  participles  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
sentences :  — 

Walking  up  to  the  front  door,  I  rang  the  bell.  V 

The  policeman  saw  a  man  sitting  on  the  steps. 
He  observed  a  fine  dog  stretched  out  on  the  hearth-rug.      • 
He  tripped  over  a  rope  extended  across  his  path. 

In   the  following  sentences   pick  out  the  participles. 
What  noun  or  pronoun  does  eacli  modify? 

1.  I  see  trees  laden  with  ripening  fruit. 

2.  In  the  green  churchyard  there  were  cattle  tranquilly  repos- 
ing upon  the  verdant  graves. 

3.  The  mob  came  roaring  out,  and  thronged  the  place. 

4.  The  girls  sat  weeping  in  silence. 

5.  Asked  for  a  groat,  he  gives  a  thousand  pounds. 

6.  Edward  marched  through  Scotland  at  the  head  of  a  power- 
ful army,  compelling  all  ranks  of  people  to  submit  to  him.    /~ 

7.  The  blackest  desperation  now  gathers  over  him,  broken 
only  by  red  lightnings  of  remorse.  .+ 

8.  Arrived  at  Athens,  soon  he  came  to  court.  * 

9.  Still  the  vessel  went  bounding  onward. 

10.  Enchanted  with  the  whole  scene,  I  lingered  on  my  voyage. 

11.  So  saying,  from  the  pavement  he  half  rose 
Slowly,  with  pain,  reclining  on  his  arm, 
And  looking  wistfully  with  wide  blue  eyes 
As  in  a  picture. 

12.  I  went  home  that  evening  greatly  oppressed  in  my  mind, 
irresolute,  and  not  knowing  what  to  do. 

13.  Methinks  I  see  thee  straying  on  the  beach. 

14.  A  mountain  stood 

Threatening  from  high,  and  overlooked  the  wood. 

15.  The  wondering  stranger  round  him  gazed. 


PRESENT  PARTICIPLE.  229 

CHAPTER    CII. 

PRESENT   PARTICIPLE. 

429.  English  verbs  have  two  simple  Participles  :  the  Present 
Participle  and  the  Past  Participle. 

430.  The  Present  Participle  ends  in  -ing. 

Thus,  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  give  is  giv-ing  ; 
that  of  walk  is  walk-ing ;  that  of  kill,  kill-ing ;  that  of 
drink,  drink-ing,  and  so  on. 

431.  The  Present  Participle  usually  describes  an  action  as 
taking  place  at  the  same  time  with  some  other  action.     Thus,  — 

The  dandy  walked  up  the  street,  flourishing  his  cane. 
The  enemy  disputed  their  ground  inch  by  inch,  fighting  with 
the  fury  of  despair. 

Do  you  hear  that  nightingale  singing  in  the  wood  ? 

432.  The  present  participle  may  describe  an  action 
as  having  taken  place  before  some  other  action.     Thus, 

Raising  his  rifle  and  taking  careful  aim,  Tom  fired  at  the  bear. 
Mounting  his  horse,  the  bandit  rode  off. 
Walking  up  to  the  stranger,  John  asked  him  his  name. 
Landing  at  Calais,  we  proceeded  to  Paris. 

433.  The  present  participle  is  much  used  with  the 
copula  is  (was,  etc.),  to  make  verb-phrases  expressing 
continued  or  repeated  action. 

He  is  chopping  wood. 

They  were  travelling  in  Italy  last  year. 

You  have  been  climbing  trees  all  day. 

A  verb-phrase  of  this  kind  is  called  the  progressive  form 
of  the  verb. 


230 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER    CIII. 

PAST   PARTICIPLE   OF   WEAK   VERBS. 

434.  The  Past  Participle  is  always  associated  with  the  idea  of 
past  time  or  completed  action. 

The  past  participle  is  also  called  the  perfect  participle. 

435.  In  form,  past  participles  differ  according  as  they 
come  from  (1)  weak  verbs  or  (2)  strong  verbs. 

436.  The  Past  Participle  of  any  Weak  Verb  is  identical  in 
form  with  the  Preterite  of  that  verb.* 

Weak  past  participles,  then,  end  in  -ed,  -d,  -t,  according  as 
the  preterite  shows  one  or  another  of  these  terminations. 

Thus,  the  preterite  tense  of  the  verb  stretch  is  stretched; 
the  past  participle  is  also  stretched. 

The  rascal  stretched  a  cord  across      I  saw  a  cord  stretched  across  the 


the  road.  [Here  stretched  is 
the  preterite,  and  has  rascal 
for  its  subject.] 


Present 
He  kills  the  dog. 
He  spends  money. 
He  meets  a  friend. 
He  buys  iron. 
The  terrier  catches 

rats. 
He  shuts  the  door. 


Preterite 

He  killed  the  dog. 
He  spent  money. 
He  met  a  friend. 
He  bought  iron. 
The  terrier  caught 

rats. 
He  shut  the  door. 


road.  [Here  stretched  has  no 
subject.  It  is  a  past  parti- 
ciple and  belongs  to  the  noun 
cord,  the  object  of  saw.] 

Past  Participle 

The  dog  was  killed. 
Much  money  was  spent. 
He  was  met  by  a  friend. 
Iron  was  bought. 
The  rat  was  caught. 


The  door  was  shut. 


The  past  participle,  it  will  be  seen,  follows  the  weak 
preterite  through  all  its  irregularities. 

*  The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  trivial  variations  in  spelling. 


PAST  PARTICIPLE.  231 

The  student  may,  at  first,  be  troubled  to  distinguish 
between  the  preterite  tense  and  the  past  participle  in 
those  verbs  which  have  these  two  forms  alike,  but  he  can 
make  no  mistake'  if  he  remembers  that  the  past  par- 
ticiple can  never  have  a  subject,  and  the  preterite  tense 
must  always  have  a  subject. 


EXERCISES. 
I. 

Write  in  three  columns,  as  in  §  436,  (1)  the  sentences 
that  follow;  (2)  the  same  sentences  with  the  verbs  changed 
to  the  preterite ;  (3)  sentences  containing  the  past  parti- 
ciple of  each  verb  preceded  by  was  or  has.     Thus,  — 

Present  Preterite  Past  Participle 

(  John's  horse  was  tied 
John  ties  his  horse.  John  tied  his  horse.  /  or 

/  John  has  tied  his  horse. 

1.  The  farmer  sows  his  seed. 

2.  The  maid  sets  the  table. 

3.  The  dog  obeys  his  master. 

4.  The  pupil  answers  the  question. 

5.  The  girl  reads  her  book. 

6.  He  spends  his  money  freely. 

7.  He  feels  sorry  for  his  faults. 

II. 
Give  the  present,  the  preterite,  and  the  past  participle  of : 

Quarrel,  accept,  tell,  offer,  hit,  drown,  flee,  start,  arrive,  hear, 
convey,  sleep,  obey,  cut,  delay,  sweep,  sell,  stay,  feel,  make,  deal, 
beseech,  creep,  bring,  shut,  cast,  keep,  lose,  catch5  cost,  leave. 


232  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CIV. 

PAST  PARTICIPLE  OF  STRONG  VERBS. 

437.  The  Past  Participle  of  Strong  Verbs,  like  the  preterite, 
shows  a  change  from  the  vowel  of  the  present  tense. 

All  strong  verbs  had  originally  the  ending  -en  (-n)  in  the  past 
participle,  but  this  ending  has  been  lost  in  many  verbs. 

Present  Indicative  Preterite  Indicative      Past  Participle 

He  rides.  He  rode.  He  has  ridden. 

He  forgets.  He  forgot.  It  is  forgotten. 

He  breaks  the  stick.  He  broke  the  stick.  The  stick  is  broken. 

He  sinks.  He  sank.  They  have  sunk. 

He  begins.  He  began  the  game.  The  game  is  begun. 

He  digs  a  pit.  He  dug  a  pit.  The  pit  is  dug. 

He  finds  gold.  He  found  gold.  The  gold  was  found. 

The  past  participle  without  ending  is  sometimes  iden- 
tical in  form  with  the  preterite.  The  forms  show  great 
variety  and  must  be  learned  by  practice. 

438.  The  strong  past  participles  have  suffered  many 
changes  of  form,  even  in  comparatively  modern  English. 
New  forms  have  come  up  and  been  in  fashion  for  a 
while,  only  to  disappear  from  accepted  usage,  and  old 
forms  have  sometimes  been  revived  and  have  made  good 
their  position  in  the  language. 

Thus,  the  only  past  participle  of  write  now  in  good  use  is 
written,  which  is  really  a  very  old  form.  A  hundred  years  ago, 
however,  wrote  was  an  accepted  form,  and  two  hundred  years  ago 
writ  was  perfectly  good.  Hence,  whereas  we  can  say  only  "  I  have 
written  a  letter,"  our  ancestors  could  say  "  I  have  written  a  letter," 
"  I  have  writ  a  letter,"  or  "  I  have  wrote  a  letter." 


PARTICIPLES.  233 

EXERCISES. 

Errors  in  the  forms  of  the  preterite  and.  the  past  par- 
ticiple are  very  common  among  careless  speakers.  Most 
of  the  erroneous  forms  now  heard  were  once  in  good  use, 
but  this  does  not  make  them  correct  now.* 

I. 

Write  in  three  columns,  as  in  §  437,  (1)  the  sentences 
that  follow ;  (2)  the  same  sentences  with  the  verbs 
changed  to  the  preterite;  (3)  sentences  containing  the  past 
participle  of  each  verb  preceded  by  ivas  or  has.     Thus,  — 

Present  Preterite  Past  Participle 

!Xo  hat  was  worn  by  Jack 
OR 
Jack  has  worn  no  hat. 

1.  Nobody  knows  the  truth  of  the  matter. 

2.  Henry  writes  to  his  mother  every  day. 

3.  The  arrow  strikes  the  target  near  the  centre. 

4.  The  explosion  throws  down  the  wall. 

5.  January  1,  1901,  begins  a  new  century. 

6.  The  boy  stands  on  the  burning  deck. 

7.  A  great  banquet  takes  place  to-night. 

8.  The  old  man  sits  in  the  sun. 

9.  The  Mexican  swings  the  lasso  round  his  head. 
10.  Johnson  swims  in  the  lake  every  day. 

II. 

Make  sentences  containing  (1)  the  preterite  and  (2)  the 
past  participle  (preceded  by  have  or  has)  of  — 

(a)  Begin,  drink,  ring,  run,  shrink,  sing,  sink,  spring,  swim. 

(b)  Bear,  bite,  break,  choose,  drive,  eat,  fall,  forget,  freeze,  hide, 
ride,  shake,  speak,  steal,  swear,  take,  tear,  wear. 

*  See  pages  38(J  ff.  for  the  correct  modern  forms. 


234 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


CHAPTER    CV. 


MODIFIERS    AND   OBJECT    OF   INFINITIVE   OR   PARTICIPLE. 

439.  Infinitives  and  Participles,  like  other  verb-forms,  may 
be  modified  by  Adverbs  or  Adverbial  Phrases. 

To  ivalk  briskly  is  good  exercise. 
He  ordered  the  company  to  march  forward  at  once. 
The  constable,  running  with  all  his  speed,  was  scarcely  able  to 
overtake  the  thief. 

The  carriage,  driven  rapidly,  was  soon  out  of  sight. 

440.  An  Infinitive  or  a  Participle,  like  any  other  verb-form, 
may  take  an  Object  if  its  meaning  allows. 

I  wish  to  find  gold. 

To  rouse  a  lion  is  a  dangerous  game. 

Sudden  a  thought  came  like  a  full-blown  rose, 

Flushing  his  broiu. 
We  could  see  a  woman  pulling  a  small  boat. 

441.  No  word  of  any  kind  should   be  inserted  between  to 
and  the  infinitive.* 


[Right] 
I  will  try  to  inform  him  thor- 
oughly   in    regard    to    this 
matter. 

Creditably  to  perform  one's 
task  is  not  always  easy. 
On,  To  perform  one's  task 
creditably  is  not  always 
.easy. 


[Wrong] 
T  will   try  to   thoroughly  in- 
form him  in  regard  to  this 
matter. 


'-NOT-' 


To  creditably  perform  one's 
task  is  not  always  easy. 


*  This  rule  of  order  is  in  strict  accordance  with  the  best  usage,  although 
it  is  habitually  neglected  by  careless  writers  and  sometimes  deliberately 
violated  by  good  writers  and  speakers  who  choose  to  defy  it. 


INFINITIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES.  235 

EXERCISES. 

I. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  insert  an  adverb 
or  adverbial  phrase  to  modify  the  infinitive. 

1.  I  resolved  to  return  to  England. 

2.  His  orders  to  me  were  to  keep  him  in  sight. 

3.  My  first  thought  was  to  flee. 

4.  To  rush  towards  her  was  my  impulse. 

5.  What  right  have  you,  then,  to  upbraid  me  for  having  told 
you  the  truth  ? 

6.  The  young  man  began  to  spend  his  money. 

II. 

Pick   out   the    participles,   and   tell    what   noun    or 
pronoun  each  modifies. 

Mention  all  the  modifiers  and  objects  of  the  participles. 

1.  He  occupied  a  farm  of  seventy  acres,  situated  on  the  skirts 
of  that  pretty  little  village. 

2.  Mine  was  a  small  chamber,  near  the  top  of   the  house, 
fronting  on  the  sea. 

3.  The  listening  crowd  admire  the  lofty  sound ! 

4.  This  life,  which  seems  so  fair, 

Is  like  a  bubble  blown  up  in  the  air. 
6.  Still  is  the  toiling  hand  of  Care  ; 
The  panting  herds  repose. 

6.  His  bridge  was  only  loose  planks  laid  upon  large  trestles. 

7.  She  had  a  little  room  in  the  garret,  where  the  maids  heard 
her  walking  and  sobbing  at  night. 

8.  The  kind  creature   retreated  into  the   garden,  overcome 
with  emotions. 

9.  The  colonel,  strengthened  with  some  troops  of  horse  from 
Yorkshire,  comes  up  to  the  bridge. 

10.  Exhausted,  I  lay  down  at  the  base  of  the  pyramid. 


236  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CVI. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS   OF   VERBS. 

442.   Three  forms  of  the  verb  are  of  so  much  consequence  that 
they  are  called  the  Principal  Parts.*     These  are :  — 

(1)  the  First  Person  Singular  of  the  Present ; 

(2)  the  First  Person  Singular  of  the  Preterite ; 

(3)  the  Past  Participle. 


Present 

Preterite 

Past  Participle 

I  act 

I  acted 

acted 

I  kill 

I  killed 

killed 

I  bring 

I  brought 

brought 

I  find 

I  found 

found 

I  ride 

I  rode 

ridden 

In  giving  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  the  pupil  may 
be  sure  of  getting  the  past  participle  right  if  he  remem- 
bers that  it  is  always  the  form  which  we  use  after  I 
have.     Thus,  —  [/  have]  found,  ridden,  brought. 


EXERCISE. 


In  Exercise  II,  p.  235,  pick  out  all  the  presents  and 
preterites  and  mention  the  subject  of  each. 

Select  all  the  present  and  past  participles  and  mention 
the  substantive  which  each  modifies. 

Tell  whether  the  verb  is  weak  or  strong  in  each  case. 

Give  the  principal  parts  of  every  verb. 

*  The  importance  of  the  present  and  the  preterite  is  at  once  clear. 
Their  difference  in  form  serves  to  distinguish  the  time  of  actions.  The 
importance  of  the  past  participle  will  appear  in  the  chapters  on  the  passive 
voice  and  the  compound  tenses. 


VERBAL   NOUNS.  237 

CHAPTER   CVII. 

VERBAL   NOUNS    IN   -ING. 

443.  Not  all  words  that  end  in  -ing  are  participles. 
There  is  a  large  class  of  verbal  nouns  that  have  this 
ending.  Indeed,  from  any  ordinary  verb  in  the  lan- 
guage a  noun  in  -ing  may  be  formed  just  as  readily  as 
a  present  participle. 

The  distinction  between  verbal  nouns  in  -ing  and  pres- 
ent participles  is  easy  to  make ;  for  the  present  parti- 
ciple is  never  used  as  a  noun.  Consequently,  if  a  word 
in  -ing  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  or  the  object  of  a 
verb  or  preposition,  or  stands  in  any  other  noun  con- 
struction, it  cannot  be  a  participle. 

444.  The  distinction  just  indicated  may  be  seen  in 
the  following  sentences:  — 

Walking  up  the  street,  I  met  an  old  friend.     [Participle.] 

Walking  is  good  exercise.     [Verbal  noun.] 

I  like  walking  on  account  of  its  good  effect  upon  my  health. 
[Verbal  noun.] 

He  gave  much  attention  to  walking,  because  he  thought  it 
made  him  feel  better.     [Verbal  noun.] 

In  the  first  of  these  examples  we  see  at  once  that 
tvalking  is  a  participle,  not  a  noun.  It  expresses  action 
but  has  no  subject,  and  it  modifies  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  i",  thus  having  the  use  of  an  adjective. 

In  the  other  examples,  however,  walking  is  not  a  par- 
ticiple, but  a  noun.  In  the  second  sentence  it  is  the 
subject;  in  the  third  it  is  the  direct  object  of  the  verb 
like  ;  in  the  fourth  it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  to. 


238  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

445.  From  nearly  every  English  verb  there  may  be  formed 
a  Verbal  Noun  in  -ing.  Such  nouns  are  identical  in  form  with 
present  participles,  but  they  have  the  construction,  not  of  par- 
ticiples, but  of  Nouns. 

Note. — In  the  oldest  form  of  English  the  present  participle  ended,  not  in 
-ing,  but  in  -ende,  and  the  number  of  nouns  in  -ing  was  limited.  At  a  later 
period  a  confusion  of  endings  came  about,  so  that  there  was  no  longer  any 
distinction  in  form  between  verbal  nouns  in  -ing  and  present  participles. 
As  a  result  of  this  confusion,  nouns  in  -ing  multiplied  greatly  in  number, 
so  that  in  modern  English  we  can  form  one  from  almost  any  verb  at 
pleasure. 

446.  Verbal  nouns  in  -ing  partake  of  the  nature  of 
the  verbs  from  which  they  are  formed.     Hence  : 

(i)  Verbal  Nouns  in  -ing  may  take  a  Direct  or  an  Indirect 
Object  if  their  meaning  allows.     Thus, — 

Giving  them  money  does  not  satisfy  them. 

Here  the  verbal  noun  giving,  which  is  the  subject  of  the  sen- 
tence, takes  both  a  direct  object  (money)  and  an  indirect  object 
(them),  as  the  verb  give  might  do. 

(2)   A  verbal  noun  in  -ing  may  take  an  adverbial  modifier. 

Eating  hastily  injures  the  health. 

Here  the  verbal  noun  eating  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  injures. 
It  is,  however,  modified  by  the  adverb  hastily,  precisely  as  if  it 
were  a  verb. 

But  verbal  nouns  in  -ing,  like  other  nouns,  may  be 
modified  by  adjectives. 

Thus,  in  the  last  example  we  may  substitute  the 
adjective  hasty  for  the  adverb  hastily  without  changing 
the  construction  of  the  verbal  noun  eating. 

Adverbial  Modifier  Adjective  Modifier 

Eating  hastily  injures  the  health.      Hasty  eating  injures  the  health. 


5EL*OS,CA?> 

VERBAL  NOUNS.  239 

447.  That  nouns  in  -ing  are  real  nouns  may  be  proved 
by  substituting  ordinary  nouns  in  their  places. 

On  thinking  this  matter  over.        On  consideration  of  this  matter. 

After  resting.  After  a  rest. 

By  experimenting.  By  an  experiment. 

448.  Verbal  Nouns  in  -ing  are  similar  in  some  of  their 
constructions  to  Infinitives  used  as  nouns  (§  425).     Thus, — 

Infinitive  as  Noun  Verbal  Noun  in  -ing 

To  breathe  is  natural  to  animals.  Breathing  is  natural  to  animals. 

[Subject.]  [Subject.] 

To  see  is  to  believe.      [Subject  Seeing    is    believing.     [Subject 

and  predicate  nominative.]  and  predicate  nominative.] 

Note.  —  Verbal  nouns  in  -ing  are  sometimes  called  infinitives  and  some- 
times gerunds. 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences  pick  out  all  the  words  in 
-ing  and  tell  whether  they  are  present  participles  or 
verbal  nouns.     Give  your  reasons. 

1.  Books,  painting,  fiddling,  and  shooting  were  my  amuse- 
ments. 

2.  We  are  terribly  afraid  of  Prince  Eugene's  coming. 

3.  Upon  hearing  my  name,  the  old  gentleman  stepped  up. 

4.  After  I  had  resided  at  college  seven  years,  my  father  died 
and  left  me  —  his  blessing. 

5.  The  neighing  of  the  generous  horse  was  heard. 

6.  Joseph  still  continued  a  huge  clattering  with  the  poker. 

7.  Then  came  the  question  of  paying. 

8.  The  day  had  been  spent  by  the  king  in  sport  and  feasting, 
and  by  the  conspirators  in  preparing  for  their  enterprise. 

9.  He  first  learned  to  write  by  imitating  printed  books. 

10.  Here  we  had  the  pleasure  of  breaking  our  fast  on  the  leg 
of  an  old  hare,  and  some  broiled  crows. 


240  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CVIII. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

449.  English  verbs,  as  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  XC, 
have  special  forms  of  inflection  to  express  present  time 
and  past  time.  Thus,  I  find  and  I  act  are  in  the  pres- 
ent tense  ;  I  found  and  I  acted  are  in  the  preterite 
tense. 

Many  languages  have  also  an  inflectional  form  for 
the  future  tense.  In  English,  however,  there  is  no  such 
future  inflection,  and  we  are  obliged,  therefore,  to  use 
a  verb-phrase  to  express  future  time.     Thus,  — 

I  shall  visit  Chicago  next  month. 
You  will  find  your  horse  in  the  stable. 
The  ship  will  sail  on  Monday. 
We  shall  march  up  Main  Street. 

In  these  sentences  the  verb-phrases  shall  visit,  will 
find,  will  sail,  and  shall  march,  manifestly  refer  to  future 
time.  Each  of  them  consists  of  an  auxiliary  verb  (shall 
or  will)  followed  by  an  infinitive  (visit,  find,  sail,  march) 
without  the  infinitive  sign  to. 

450.  The  English  Future  Tense  is  a  verb-phrase  consisting 
of  the  auxiliary  verb  shall  or  will,  followed  by  the  infinitive 
without  to. 

451.  A  correct  use  of  shall  and  will  in  the  future 
tense  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty. 

The  following  table  shows  the  proper  form  of  the 
future  tense  for  each  of  the  three  persons  (1)  in  asser- 
tions and  (2)  in  questions  :  — 


FUTURE    TENSE.  241 

FUTURE  TENSE 

Assertions  (Declarative) 

Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  I  shall  fall.  We  shall  fall. 

.      2.  Thou  wilt  fall.  You  will  fall. 

3.  He  will  fall.  They  will  fall. 

Questions  (Interrogative) 

Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  Shall  I  fall?  Shall  we  fall? 

2.  Shalt  thou  fall?  Shall  you  fall? 

3.  Will  he  fall?  Will  they  fall? 

452.  Very  common  errors  are  the  use  of  will  for  shall 
(1)  in  the  first  person  in  assertions  and  questions  and  (2)  in 
the  second  person  in  questions. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  first  person  of  the 
future  tense  is  correctly  formed :  — 

1  shall  fall.  Shall  I  fall? 

I  shall  break  my  arm.     Shall  I  break  my  arm  ? 

We  shall  die.  Shall  we  die  ? 

The  italicized  phrases  express  merely  the  action  of 
the  verb  in  future  time.  They  do  not  indicate  any 
willingness  or  desire  on  the  part  of  the  subject. 

Contrast  the  following  sentences,  in  which  a  verl> 
phrase  consisting  of  /  will  and  the  infinitive  is  used  : 

I  will  lend  you  five  dollars. 
I  will  speak,  in  spite  of  you. 
I  will  not  permit  such  disorder. 
I  will  do  my  very  best. 
I  will  conquer  or  die. 


242  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

In  these  sentences  the  italicized  phrases  do  not  (as  in 
the  previous  examples  of  /  shall)  express  the  action  of 
the  verb  in  future  time.  They  express  the  present  will- 
ingness or  desire  or  determination  of  the  subject  to  do  some- 
thing in  the  future. 

Hence  such  verb-phrases  with  will  in  the  first  person 
are  not  forms  of  the  future  tense.  They  are  special 
verb-phrases  expressing  willingness  or  desire. 

453.  In  the  First  Person  shall,  not  will,  is  the  auxiliary  of 
the  Future  Tense  in  both  assertions  and  questions.  It  denotes 
simple  futurity,  without  expressing  willingness,  desire,  or  de- 
termination. 

Will  in  the  First  Person  is  used  in  promising,  threatening, 
consenting,  and  expressing  resolution.  It  never  denotes  simple 
futurity. 

/  will  give  you  a  thousand  dollars  to  do  this.     [Promise.] 

/  will  shoot  the  first  man  that  runs.     [Threat.] 

/  will  accompany  you,  since  you  wish  it.     [Consent.] 

/  will  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer.    [Resolution.] 

454.  I'll  and  we  HI  stand  for  I  will  and  we  will,  and 
are  proper  only  when  I  will  and  we  will  would  be  cor- 
rect.    They  can  never  stand  for  i"  shall  and  we  shall. 

455.  The  use  of  will  for  shall  in  the  first  person  of 
the  future  is  a  common  but  gross  error.     Thus,  — 

We  will  all  die  some  day.  [Wrong,  unless  what  one  means  is 
"  We  are  determined  to  die."     Say:  "  We  shall.'"'] 

I  will  be  glad  to  help  you.     [Say :  "  I  shall  be  glad."] 

Such  expressions  as  I  shall  be  glad,  I  shall  be  willing,  I  shall  be 
charmed  to  do  this,  express  willingness  not  by  means  of  shall  but  in  the 
adjectives  glad,  willing,  charmed.  To  say  "  I  will  be  glad  to  do  this," 
then,  would  be  wrong,  for  it  would  be  to  express  volition  twice.  Such  a 
sentence  could  only  mean  "  /  am  determined  to  be  glad  to  do  this." 


FUTURE    TENSE.  243 

456.  In  the  Second  Person  shall  you  ?  not  will  you  ?  is 
the  proper  form  of  the  Future  Tense  in  questions. 

Will  you  ?  always  denotes  willingness,  consent,  or  determi- 
nation, and  never  simple  futurity. 

I.    Future  Tense  (simple  futurity). 

Shall  you  vote  for  Jackson?     [That  is,  Are  you  going  to  vote 
for  him  as  a  matter  of  fact  ?  ] 
Shall  you  try  to  win  the  prize  ? 
Shall  you  go  to  Paris  in  June  or  in  July? 

II.   Verb-phrase  denoting  willingness,  etc. 

Will  you  lend  me  ten  dollars  as  a  favor  ? 
Will  you  try  to  write  better? 
Will  you  insist  on  this  demand  ? 

457.  Shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons  is  not  the 
sign  of  the  future  tense  in  declarative  sentences. 

It  is  used  in  commanding,  promising,  threatening,  and 
expressing  resolution,  the  volition  being  that  of  the 
speaker.     Thus,  — 

Thou  shalt  not  steal.     [Command.] 

You  shall  have  a  dollar  if  you  run  this  errand.     [Promise.] 

You  shall  be  punished  if  you  defy  me.     [Threat.] 

He  shall  be  punished  if  he  defies  me.     [Threat.] 

You  shall  never  see  him  again.     [Determination.] 

He  shall  leave  the  house  instantly.     [Determination.] 


EXERCISES. 


Express  the  thought  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences by  means  of  a  verb-phrase  with  will  or  shall. 


244  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

1.  I  am  determined  to  learn  my  lesson.     (/  will  or  I  shall?) 

2.  I  am  willing  to  accompany  you.     (Will  or  shall ?) 

3.  You  are  sure  to  fall  if  you  climb  that  tree.     ( You  will  or 
you  shall  ?) 

4.  I  am  sure  to  fall  if  I  climb  that  tree.     (7  will  or  /  shall  f) 

5.  He  is  not  to  go  home  till  he  has  learned  his  lesson.     (He 
will  not  or  he  shall  not  ?) 

6.  We  agree  to  lend  you  fifty  dollars.     ( We  will  lend  or  we 

shall  lend  ?) 

7.  We  are  going  to  lend  you  fifty  dollars,  as  a  matter  of  fact. 

(  We  will  or  tee  shall  ?) 

8.  We  are  determined  to  find  the  rascal  who  stole  our  dog. 

9.  We  are  certain  to  succeed  in  the  search. 

10.  Columbus  cannot  fail  to  discover  land  if  he  sails  on. 

11.  You  are  resolved  to  win  this  game,  I  see. 

II. 
Fill  the  blanks   with    shall    or   will  as  the  sense  re- 
quires.    Give  your  reason  for  selecting  one  or  the  other 
word.     In  some  cases  either  may  be  used. 

1.  I lose  my  train  if  I  stay  any  longer. 

2.  I be  tired  to  death  by  night. 

3.  We break  through  the  ice  if  we  are  not  careful. 

4.  "We try  to  do  our  duty. 

5.  "We not  be  guilty  of  such  a  crime. 

6.  We give  you  what  you  need. 

7.  I send  a  letter  to  him  at  once,  since  you  wish  it. 

8.  « I drown  !  "  cried  the  poor  fellow,  who  was  strug- 
gling in  the  water.     "  Nobody help  me  !  " 

9.  He misspell  his  words,  in  spite  of  all  I  can  say. 

10.  They not  be  captured  if  I  can  help  it. 

11.  They catch  nothing  if  they  fish  in  that  stream. 

12.  I catch  one  fish  if  I  have  to  stay  here  all  day. 

13.  I catch  cold  in  this  carriage. 

14.  I ride  as  fast  as  I  can. 


PASSIVE   VOICE.  245 

CHAPTER    CIX.* 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 

458.  We  have  already  studied  the  difference  between 
the  active  and  the  passive  voice  of  verbs  (pp.  95,  96). 

459.  A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Active  Voice  when  it  rep- 
resents its  subject  as  the  doer  of  an  act. 

Thomas  struck  John. 

The  sleeping  fox  catches  no  poultry. 

The  wave  washed  him  overboard. 

460.  A  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  Passive  Voice  when  it  rep- 
resents its  subject  not  as  the  doer  of  an  action,  but  as  receiv- 
ing an  action. 

John  was  struck  by  Thomas. 

The  goose  was  caught  by  the  fox. 

He  was  washed  overboard  by  the  wave. 

461.  In  English  there  is  no  single  verb-form  for  the 
passive  voice.  Hence  the  passive  voice  must  be  expressed 
by  a  verb-phrase,  as  in  the  examples  above. 

462.  The  Passive  Voice  of  a  verb  is  expressed  by  a  verb- 
phrase  made  by  prefixing  some  form  of  the  copula  (is,  was,  etc.) 
to  the  Past  Participle  of  the  Verb. 

Thus  in  the  second  example  in  §  460,  the  passive  is 
expressed  by  was  caught,  a  phrase  consisting  of  (1)  the 
copula  was  and  (2)  caught,  the  past  participle  of  the  verb 
catch. 

463.  In  this  way  a  verb  may  have  passive  forms  for 
all  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood. 

*  Here  pages  95,  96  should  be  reviewed. 


246 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


ACTIVE  VOICE  PASSIVE  VOICE 

Present  Tense 


1.  I  strike. 

2.  Thou  strikest. 

3.  He  strikes. 


1.  We  strike. 

2.  You  strike. 

3.  They  strike. 


Singular  Number 

I  am  struck. 
Thou  art  struck. 
He  is  struck. 

Plural  Number 

We  are  struck. 
You  are  struck. 
They  are  struck. 


Preterite  Tense 
Singular  Number 

1.  I  struck.  I  was  struck. 

2.  Thou  struckest  (or  didst  Thou  wast  {or  wert)  struck. 

strike). 

3.  He  struck. 


1.  We  struck. 

2.  You  struck. 

3.  They  struck. 


1.  I  shall  strike. 

2.  Thou  wilt  strike. 

3.  He  will  strike. 


1.  We  shall  strike. 

2.  You  will  strike. 

3.  They  will  strike. 


He  was  struck. 

Plural  Number 

We  were  struck. 
You  were  struck. 
They  were  struck. 

Future  Tense 

Singular  Number 

I  shall  be  struck. 
Thou  wilt  be  struck. 
He  will  be  struck. 

Plural  Number 

We  shall  be  struck. 
You  will  be  struck. 
They  will  be  struck. 


PASSIVE   VOICE.  247 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Find  the  passives.  Give  tense,  person,  and  number. 
Mention  the  subject  of  each. 

1.  The  spears  are  uplifted ;  the  matches  are  lit. 

2.  Burton  was  staggered  by  this  news. 

3.  Thus  was  Corinth  lost  and  won. 

4.  Five  hundred  carpenters  had  been  set  at  work. 

5.  Old  Simon  is  carried  to  his  cottage  door. 

6.  You  will  be  surprised  at  her  good  spirits. 

7.  George  Brand  was  ushered  into  the  little  drawing-room. 

8.  "We  shall  be  hit  by  the  sharpshooters. 

9.  The  house  had  been  struck  by  lightning. 

10.  The  art  of  writing  had  just  been  introduced  into  Arabia. 

11.  They  are  bred  up  in  the  principles  of  honor  and  justice. 

12.  He  was  carried  away  captive  by  the  Indians. 

13.  The  alarm  bell  will  be  rung  when  the  foe  appears. 

14.  For  my  own  part,  I  swam  as  Fortune  directed  me,  and 
was  pushed  forward  by  wind  and  tide. 

15.  Thus  the  emperor's  great  palace  was  built. 

16.  The  stranger  was  surrounded,  pinioned  with  strong  fetters, 
and  hurried  away  to  the  prison  of  the  great  tower. 

17.  Some  of  the  cargo  had  been  damaged  by  the  sea  water. 

18.  Our  blows  were  dealt  at  random. 

19.  Nothing  will  be  gained  by  hurry. 

20.  I  shall  be  surprised  if  he  succeeds. 

II. 

Use  in  sentences  some  passive  form  of  each  of  the 
following  verbs  :  — 

Delay,  devour,  pierce,  set,  send,  bring,  betray,  fulfil,  declare, 
conduct,  guide,  spend,  read,  feel,  catch,  sink,  cut,  find,  steal, 
drink,  ring. 


248  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CX. 

ACTIVE   AND  PASSIVE. 

464.  Any  sentence  in  which  the  verb  of  the  predi- 
cate is  transitive  may  be  changed  from  the  active  to  the 
passive  form.     Thus,  — 

Active.      The  dog  chased  the  boy. 
Passive.     The  boy  was  chased  by  the  dog. 

(1)  The  verb  (chased)  is  changed  from  the  active  voice 
to  the  passive  (becoming  was  chased). 

(2)  Boy,  the  object  of  the  active  verb  chased,  becomes 
the  subject  of  the  passive  verb  was  chased. 

(3)  Dog,  the  subject  of  the  active  verb,  becomes,  in 
the  passive  sentence,  a  part  of  the  complete  predicate, 
and  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  by. 

465.  In  turning  a  sentence  from  the  Active  Voice  to  the 
Passive,  the  Object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  Subject  of 
the  passive. 

466.  An  Intransitive  Verb  can  have  no  passive  voice. 
Since  it  is  the  very  nature  of  the  passive  voice  that 

the  object  of  the  action  should  appear  as  the  subject  of 
the  sentence,  an  intransitive  verb,  which  takes  no  object, 
cannot  be  used  in  the  passive. 


EXERCISE. 


In  Exercise  I,  p.  46,  change  the  transitive  verbs  from 
the  active  to  the  passive  or  from  the  passive  to  the 
active  without  altering  the  meaning  of  the  sentences. 


COMPLETE    TENSES.  249 

CHAPTER    CXI. 

COMPLETE  OR  COMPOUND  TENSES. 

467.  Completed  action  is  denoted  by  special  verb-phrases 
made  by  prefixing  to  the  past  participle  some  form  of  the 
auxiliary  have. 

These  are  called  the  complete  or  compound  tenses. 

468.  The  Perfect  Tense  denotes  that  the  action  of  the  verb  is 
complete  at  the  time  of  speaking.  It  is  formed  by  prefixing 
have  (hast,  has)  to  the  Past  Participle. 

I  have  eaten  my  breakfast. 

He  has  filled  his  pockets  with  apples. 

469.  The  Pluperfect  (or  Past  Perfect)  Tense  denotes  that  the 
action  was  completed  at  some  point  in  past  time.  It  is  formed 
by  prefixing  had  (hadst)  to  the  Past  Participle. 

When  I  reached  the  pier,  the  ship  had  sailed. 

After  the  bell  had  rung  three  times,  the  session  began. 

470.  The  Future  Perfect  Tense  denotes  that  the  action  will 
be  completed  at  some  point  of  future  time.  It  is  formed  by  pre- 
fixing the  future  tense  of  have  (shall  have,  etc.)  to  the  Past 
Participle. 

The  ship  will  sail  before  I  shall  have  reached  the  pier. 

The  future  perfect  tense  is  rare  except  in  very  formal  writing. 

471.  A  verb-phrase  made  by  prefixing  having  to  the 
past  participle  is  called  the  perfect  participle. 

Having  knocked,  he  waited  for  admittance. 

472.  A  verb-phrase  made  by  prefixing  to  have  to  the 
past  participle  is  called  the  perfect  infinitive. 

He  ought  to  have  studied  harder. 


250  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

473.   In  the  Passive  Voice  of  the  complete  tenses  the  past 
participle  been  follows  the  auxiliary. 

The  flames  have  been  extinguished.  [Perfect  Passive.] 

The  horse  had  been  driven  too  hard.  [Pluperfect  Passive.] 

When  this  happens,  I  shall  have  been  attacked  once  too  often. 

[Future  Perfect  Passive.] 
He  could  not  move,  having  been  crippled  by  a  fall. 

[Perfect  Passive  Participle.] 
You  ought  to  have  been  punished.     [Perfect  Passive  Infinitive.] 


EXERCISE. 


In  the  following  sentences  select  all  the  verbs,  give 
the  tense,  voice,  person,  and  number  of  each,  and  point 
out  the  subject  with  which  it  agrees. 

1.  My  eldest  daughter  had  finished  her  Latin   lessons,  and 
my  son  had  finished  his  Greek. 

2.  There  has  been  a  heavy  thunderstorm  this  afternoon. 

3.  A  multitude  of  humming  birds  had  been  attracted  thither. 

4.  Our  men  had  besieged  some  fortified  house  near  Oxford. 

5.  I  really  have  had  enough  of  fighting. 

6.  All  shyness  and  embarrassment  had  vanished. 

7.  The  great  tree  has  been  undermined  by  winter  floods. 

8.  He  had  lost  his  way  in  the  pine  woods. 

9.  Thousands  had  sunk  on  the  ground  overpowered. 

10.  A  storm  of  mingled  rain  and  snow  had  come  on. 

11.  We  had  left  our  two  servants  behind  us  at  Calais. 

12.  The  patience  of  Scotland  had  found  an  end  at  last. 

13.  His  passion  has  cast  a  mist  before  his  sense. 

14.  The  surgeon  has  set  my  arm  very  skilfully  and  well. 

15.  A  strange  golden  moonlight  had  crept  up  the  skies. 

16.  You  will  have  finished  your  task  by  Saturday. 

17.  The  wind  has  howled  all  day. 

18.  He  had  gasped  out  a  few  incoherent  words. 


PROGRESSIVE    VERB-PHRASES.  251 

CHAPTER    CXII. 

PROGRESSIVE  VERB-PHRASES.     I. 

474.  Examine  the  following  sentences :  — 

I  struck  John.     I  was  striking  John. 

In  these  two  short  sentences  the  predicates  (struck, 
was  striking)  both  refer  to  past  time,  but  there  is  an 
obvious  difference  in  their  sense. 

(1)  The  first  predicate,  struck,  merely  states  a  fact  in 
past  time.    The  form  is  that  of  the  simple  preterite  tense. 

(2)  The  second  predicate,  was  striking,  describes  an 
act  as  going  on  or  progressing  in  past  time.  Hence  it  is 
called  the  progressive  form  of  the  preterite  tense.  It  is, 
we  observe,  a  verb-phrase  made  by  prefixing  the  preterite 
of  be  (namely,  was)  to  the  present  participle,  striking. 

475.  The  Progressive  Form  of  a  tense  represents  the  action  of 
the  verb  as  going  on  or  continuing  at  the  time  referred  to. 

476.  The  Progressive  Form  is  a  verb-phrase  made  by  prefixing 
to  the  present  participle  some  form  of  the  verb  to  be. 

He  is  striking.  They  will  be  striking. 

They  were  striking.  They  have  been  striking. 

477.  The  progressive  forms  of  the  present  indicative 
active  may  be  seen  in  the  following  table  :  — 

Present  Tense,  Progressive  Form 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  am  reading.  We  are  reading. 

2.  Thou  art  reading.  You  are  reading. 

3.  He  is  reading.  They  are  reading. 


252  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXIII. 

PROGRESSIVE   VERB-PHRASES.     II. 

478.  In  the  passive,  the  progressive  verb-phrases  are  made 
by  prefixing  am  being,  is  being,  was  being,  etc.,  to  the  past 
participle.     Thus,  — 

I  am  always  being  tormented  by  this  fellow. 

John  is  being  educated  in  Germany. 

While  the  guard  was  being  changed,  the  prisoner  escaped. 

479.  Instead  of  the  progressive  form  of  the  passive, 
English  sometimes  prefers  a  peculiar  phrase  consisting 
of  the  verbal  noun  in  -ing  preceded  by  some  form  of  be. 
Thus,  — 

The  house  is  building.     [Instead  of  :  The  house  is  being  built.'] 
Arrangements  were  making  for  a  grand  celebration.     [Instead 
of :  Arrangements  were  being  made.'] 

The  book  is  now  printing.      [Instead  of  :   is  now  being  printed.] 

The  word  in  -ing  in  these  examples  is  not  the  present  participle ;  it  is 
the  verbal  noun  in  -ing.  The  construction  is  in  fact  the  same  as  that  in 
"I  went  a-fishing,"  "They  were  going  a-Maying,"  "The  old  year  lies 
a-dying,"  etc.,  in  which  a  is  a  contraction  of  the  preposition  on  ("  I  went 
on  fishing").     The  omission  of  a-  disguises  the  real  construction. 

The  use  of  the  -ing  phrase  as  a  substitute  for  the  passive  is  becoming 
less  and  less  common,  but  the  construction  is  often  useful  as  well  as 
elegant.  Thus,  if  one  wished  to  say  that  the  building  of  a  certain  house 
had  taken  ten  years,  the  progressive  form  of  the  passive  would  be  intoler- 
able :  — 

The  house  had  been  being  built  ten  years. 

But  the  -ing  construction  would  be  both  neat  and  concise:  — 

The  house  had  been  ten  years  building. 

Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  avoid  ambiguity.  It  would  never 
do  to  say  "  The  boy  was  whipping  "  if  one  meant  "  The  boy  was  being 

w/iipped." 


EMPHATIC    VERB-PHRASES.  253 

CHAPTER    CXIV. 

EMPHATIC    VERB-PHRASES. 

480.  Compare  the  following  sentences  :  — 

I  study. 
I  do  study. 

In  these  two  short  sentences  the  predicates  (study,  do 
study)  both  refer  to  present  time,  but  there  is  an  obvious 
difference  in  their  sense. 

(1)  The  first  predicate,  study,  merely  states  a  fact.  We 
recognize  the  form  as  that  of  the  simple  present  tense. 

(2)  The  second  predicate,  do  study,  states  the  same 
fact,  but  with  emphasis :  "I  do  study."  Hence  it  is 
called  the  emphatic  form  of  the  present  tense.  It  is  a 
verb-phrase  made  by  prefixing  the  present  tense  of  do 
to  the  infinitive  study  (without  the  infinitive  sign  to). 

Similarly  we  may  use  an  emphatic  preterite,  "  I  did 
study,"  instead  of  the  simple  preterite  "  I  studied." 

481.  The  Present  or  the  Preterite  of  a  verb  in  the  active  voice 
may  be  expressed  with  emphasis  by  means  of  a  verb-phrase  con- 
sisting of  do  or  did  and  the  infinitive  without  to. 

Such  a  phrase  is  called  the  Emphatic  Form  of  the  present  or 
the  preterite  tense. 

482.  The  emphatic  form  is  confined  to  the  present 
and  preterite  tenses  of  the  active  voice. 

In  questions  and  in  negative  sentences,  the  emphatic  forms  are  used 
without  the  effect  of  emphasis.     See  §§  M,  489,  4iiO. 

In  older  English  the  verb-phrase  with  do  or  did  in  declarative  sentences 
often  carried  no  emphasis  whatever,  but  was  merely  a  substitute  for  the 
simple  present  or  preterite. 


254  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


EXERCISES. 


Change  the  progressive  and  the  emphatic  forms  to  the 
ordinary  tense-forms.  Tell  which  of  the  "  emphatic  " 
forms  are  really  emphatic. 


1.  The  church  bells,  with  various  tones,  but  all  in  harmony, 
were  calling  out  and  responding  to  one  another. 

2.  A  huge  load  of  oak  wood  was  passing  through  the  gateway. 

3.  Many  a  chapel  bell  the  hour  is  telling. 

4.  Edmund  was  standing  thoughtfully  by  the  fire. 

5.  A  thick  mist  was  gradually  spreading  over  every  object. 

6.  I  have  been  walking  by  the  river. 

7.  Merry  it  is  in  the  good  greenwood 

When  the  mavis  and  merle  are  singing, 
When  the  deer  sweeps  by,  and  the  hounds  are  in  cry. 
And  the  hunter's  horn  is  ringing. 

8.  The  morn  is  laughing  in  the  sky. 

9.  Curly-headed  urchins  are  gambolling  before  the  door. 

IT. 

1.  The  wind  did  blow,  the  cloak  did  fly. 

2.  Glossy  bees  at  noon  do  fieldward  pass. 

3.  A  second  time  did  Matthew  stop. 

4.  He  did  come  rather  earlier  than  had  been  expected. 

5.  She  did  look  a  little  hot  and  disconcerted  for  a  few  minutes. 

6.  The  dogs  did  bark,  the  children  screamed, 
Up  flew  the  windows  all. 

7.  The  Nile  does  not  always  rise  on  the  same  day. 

8.  But  Knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page, 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did  ne'er  unroll. 

9.  Beasts  did  ieap  and  birds  did  sing, 
Trees  did  grow  and  plants  did  spring. 

10.  The  noise  of  the  wind  and  of  the  thunder  did  not  awaken 
the  king,  for  he  was  old  and  weary  with  his  journey. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD.  255 

CHAPTER  CXV.* 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

483.  An  Imperative  Sentence  expresses  a  command  or  an 
entreaty  in  the  second  person. 

Come  here.  Go  to  your  mother. 

Love  your  enemies.         Forgive  us  our  sins. 

The  form  of  the  verb  used  in  an  Imperative  Sentence  is  called 
the  Imperative  Mood. 

484.  The  imperative  mood  has  both  voices,  active  and 
passive,  but  only  one  tense,  —  the  present.  It  has  both 
numbers,  the  singular  and  the  plural,  but  only  one  person, 
the  second.  It  has  the  same  form  for  both  the  singular  and 
the  plural  number. 

485.  In  the  Active  Voice  the  Imperative  has  the  same  form  as 
the  second  person  plural  of  the  present  indicative. 

Indicative  Mood  Imperative  Mood 

(Declarative  Sentences)  (Imperative  Sentences) 

You  learn  your  lessons  well.  Learn  your  lessons. 

You  run  very  fast.  Run  home  with  this  message. 

You  waste  your  time.  Waste  nothing. 

Exception.  —  The  imperative  of  the  verb  to  be  is  be.    Thus,  — 

Be  a  man.  Be  diligent  in  business. 

Be  good,  and  you  '11  be  happy.      Be  attentive. 

486.  In  the  Passive  Voice  the  Imperative  is  expressed  by  a 
verb-phrase  consisting  of  be  and  a  past  participle. 

Be  killed  at  your  post  rather  than  run  away. 

Be  honored  by  your  friends  rather  than  by  strangers. 

*  Here  pages  29-35  should  be  reviewed. 


256  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

487.  The  emphatic  form  of  the  imperative  consists  of 
the  imperative  do,  followed  by  the  infinitive  without  to. 

Do  go  to  market  with  me. 

Do  come  to  my  house  this  afternoon. 

Do  try  to  be  more  careful. 

488.  The  Subject  of  an  Imperative  is  seldom  expressed  unless 
it  is  emphatic. 

The  subject,  when  expressed,  may  precede  the  imper- 
ative :  as,  —  you  go,  you  read. 

In  this  use  the  subject  is  almost  always  emphasized 
in  speaking.  The  construction  is  seldom  heard  except 
in  familiar  language. 

In  older  English  the  subject  often  followed  the 
imperative :   as,  —  go  thou,  go  you,   hear  ye. 

This  use  is  now  confined  to  the  solemn  style  and  to 
poetry. 

489.  In  modern  English  the  so-called  emphatic  form 
with  do  is  often  used  when  the  subject  of  the  imperative 
is  expressed :   as,  — -  do  you  go. 

In  this  use  the  emphatic  force  of  do  has  disappeared. 

490.  Negative  commands  or  entreaties  are  commonly 
expressed  by  means  of  the  so-called  emphatic  form  with 
do,  which  in  this  use  has  lost  its  emphatic  force. 

Do  not  skate  on  thin  ice. 
Do  not  keep  bad  company. 
Do  not  interrupt  a  conversation. 
Do  not  talk  so  idly. 

The  subject  is  very  rarely  expressed  except  in  familiar 
language  :  as,  — 

Don't  you  believe  him. 
Don't  you  do  it. 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD.  257 

491.  In  older  English,  negative  commands  and  en- 
treaties are  often  expressed  by  the  simple  imperative, 
followed  by  not.  The  subject,  when  expressed,  pre- 
cedes  the  not.     Thus, — 

Look  not  upon  the  wine  when  it  is  red. 

Speak  not,  but  go. 

Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged. 

If  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not. 

This  construction  is  common  in  the  solemn  style  and 
in  poetry. 

EXERCISE. 

In  each  of  the  following  imperative  sentences  pick  out 
the  verb.  Mention  the  subject,  when  it  is  expressed ; 
when  not,  supply  it. 

1.  Let  us  have  a  walk  through  Kensington  Gardens. 

2.  Do  not  forget  the  poor. 

3.  Hope  not,  base  man,  unquestioned  hence  to  go ! 

4.  Would  ye  be  blest?     Despise  low  joys,  low  gains. 

5.  Summon  Colonel  Atherton  without  a  moment's  delay. 

6.  Look  up  and  be  not  afraid,  but  hold  forth  thy  hand. 

7.  Mount  ye  !  spur  ye  !  skirr  the  plain  ! 

8.  O,  listen,  listen,  ladies  gay  ! 

9.  Toll  ye  the  church-bell  sad  and  slow. 

10.  You,  Herbert  and  Luffness,  alight, 
And  bind  the  wounds  of  yonder  knight. 

11.  Stay  with  us.     Go  not  to  Wittenberg. 

12.  Listen  to  the  rolling  thunder. 

13.  Call  off  your  dogs  ! 

14.  Keep  thine  elbow  from  my  side,  friend. 

15.  Do  not  leave  me  to  perish  in  this  wilderness. 

16.  Saddle  my  horses  !     Call  my  train  together. 


258  TEE  MOTEER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE.* 

You  have  now  studied  the  inflections  of  the  verb  in  the  indica- 
tive mood  (that  is,  in  the  set  of  forms  used  in  most  sentences) 
and  the  imperative  mood.  You  are  acquainted  with  the  present, 
preterite,  and  future  tenses ;  with  the  complete  tenses ;  with  the 
infinitive  and  participle ;  with  the  progressive  and  emphatic  verb- 
phrases.     You  have  learned  to  distinguish  person  and  number. 

In  the  following  passages  tell  all  you  can  about  the 
form  and  construction  of  each  verb  and  verb-phrase. 

1.  The  more  I  give  to  thee,  the  more  I  have. 

2.  Comes  the  kincr  back  from  Wales  ? 

3.  Dost  thou  not  hear  them  call  ? 

4.  The  more  we  stay,  the  stronger  grows  our  foe. 

5.  I  know  not,  gentlemen,  what  you  intend. 

6.  How  long  hast  thou  to  serve,  Francis  ? 

7.  A  great  portion  of  my  time   was  passed  in  a  deep  and 
mournful   silence. 

8.  The  day,  which  had  been  tempestuous,  was  succeeded  by 
a  heavy  and  settled  rain. 

9.  His  courage  was  not  staggered,  even  for  an  instant. 

10.  I  was  startled  by  the  sound  of  trumpets. 

11.  The  company  was  surprised  to  see  the  old  man  so  merry, 
when  suffering  such  great  losses  ;  and  the  mandarin  himself, 
coming  out,  asked  him,  how  he,  who  had  grieved  so  much,  and 
given  way  to  calamity  the  day  before,  could  now  be  so  cheerful? 
"  You  ask  me  one  question,"  cries  the  old  man  ;  "  let  me  answer 
by  asking  another :  Which  is  the  more  durable,  a  hard  thing  or 
a  soft  thing ;  that  which  resists  or  that  which  makes  no  resist- 
ance?"—  "A  hard  thing,  to  be  sure,"  replied  the  mandarin. — 
"  There  you  are  wrong,"  returned  Shingfu.  "  I  am  now  four- 
score years  old ;  and,  if  you  look  in  my  mouth,  you  will  find  that 
I  have  lost  all  my  teeth,  but  not  a  bit  of  my  tongue." 

*  Here  pages  204-57  should  be  reviewed. 


NOMINATIVE  ABSOLUTE.  259 

CHAPTER    CXVI. 

NOMINATIVE   ABSOLUTE. 

492.    Examine  the  following  sentence :  — 
The  general  falling,  the  troops  became  discouraged. 

In  this  sentence  the  noun  general  is  not  the  subject  or 
the  object  of  any  verb,  nor  is  it  in  any  other  noun  con- 
struction which  we  have  so  far  studied. 

The  participle  falling  obviously  belongs  to  it.  The 
phrase  the  general  falling  modifies  the  predicate  became 
discouraged,  by  giving  the  time  or  perhaps  the  cause  of 
the  discouragement.  We  might,  indeed,  substitute  an 
adverbial  phrase  of  time  for  this  participial  phrase  with- 
out any  material  change  in  the  sense :  — 

On  the  fall  of  the  general  the  soldiers  became  discouraged. 
[Here  became  discouraged  is  modified  by  the  phrase  on  the  fall  of 
the  general.l 

Other  sentences  illustrating  this  use  of  nouns  and 
participles  are  the  following :  — 

His  friends  requesting  it,  he  surrendered  his  office.  [Here  the 
phrase  his  friends  requesting  it  is  equivalent  to  because  his  friends 
requested  it:  that  is,  it  expresses  cause.] 

The  time  having  come,  he  mounted  the  scaffold.  [Here  the 
phrase  the  time  having  come  is  equivalent  to  when  the  time  had  come  : 
that  is,  it  expresses  time.] 

He  began  to  speak,  the  audience  listening  intently.  [Here  the 
phrase  the  audience  listening  intent!)/  expresses  neither  time  nor 
cause,  but  merely  one  of  the  circumstances  that  attended  the 
oration.] 

We  may,  then,  formulate  the  following  rule :  — 


260  TEE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

493.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  a  participle  in  agreement,  may 
express  the  cause,  time,  or  circumstances  of  an  action. 

This  is  called  the  Absolute  Construction. 
The  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  nominative  case  and  is  called  a 
Nominative  Absolute. 

494.  The  absolute  construction  of  the  nominative  is  per- 
fectly correct  in  English ;  but  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  use  it  with  great  frequency,  since  it  is  a  loose  and 
inexact  way  of  designating  the  relations  of  thought, 
and  an  excessive  employment  of  it  tends  to  clumsiness 
and  obscurity.* 

495.  It  is  not  always  necessary  that  a  participle 
should  be  expressed  in  the  nominative  absolute  construc- 
tion. Sometimes  two  substantives,  or  a  substantive  and  an 
adjective  may  be  used  together  in  this  manner.  In  such 
cases,  however,  it  is  always  easy  to  supply  the  participle 
being  to  separate  the  two. 

Expressions  of  this  kind  are  not  numerous,  but  some 
of  them  are  highly  idiomatic.     Thus,  — 

Stephen  once  king,  anarchy  reigned.     [That  is :  Stephen  once 
being  king,  or,  in  other  words,  As  soon  as  Stephen  became  king.] 
The  rain  over,  we  ventured  out. 

The  gate  once  open,  the  cattle  came  trooping  out  of  the  yard. 
We  stood  silent,  our  eyes  full  of  tears. 

*  Students  of  Latin  will  see  that  the  construction  is  of  the  same  kind  as 
the  ablative  absolute,  so  characteristic  of  Latin  style.  The  absolute  case  in 
English  was  originally  the  dative.  All  dative  case-endings,  however,  dis- 
appeared, so  that  the  dative  of  nouns  became  indistinguishable  from  the 
nominative ;  and  hence  the  absolute  case  came  to  be  felt  as  a  nominative, 
and  even  pronouns  (which  kept  a  dative  distinct  in  form  from  the  nomina- 
tive) have  followed  the  analogy  of  nouns.  Thus,  we  say  "He  being 
present,  the  game  went  on,"  and  not  "  Him  being  present,  the  game  went 
on,"  although  him  is  the  old  dative  of  the  personal  pronoun  he. 


NOMINATIVE  ABSOLUTE.  261 

EXERCISE. 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  all  instances  of 
the  nominative  absolute,  and  tell  whether  each  expresses 
the  time,  place,  or  circumstance  of  the  action. 

1.  Navigation  was  at  a  stop,  our  ships  neither  coming  in  nor 
going  out  as  before. 

2.  Night  coming  on,  we  sought  refuge  from  the  gathering 
storm. 

3.  The  song  ended,  she  hastily  relinquished  her  seat  to  an- 
other lady. 

4.  The  house  consisted  of  seven  rooms,  the  dairy  and  cellar 
included. 

5.  The  resolution  being  thus  taken,  they  set  out  the  next  day. 

6.  They  had  some  difficulty  in  passing  the  ferry  at  the  river- 
side, the  ferryman  being  afraid  of  them. 

7.  She  sat  beneath  the  birchen  tree, 
Her  elbow  resting  on  her  knee. 

8.  The  signal  of  battle  being  given  with  two  cannon  shot, 
we  marched  in  order  of  battalia  down  the  hill. 

9.  The  dark  lead-colored  ocean  lay  stretched  before  them,  its 
dreary  expanse  concealed  by  lowering  clouds. 

10.  Next  Anger  rushed,  his  eyes  on  fire. 

11.  The  last  of  these  voyages  not  proving  very  fortunate,  I 
grew  weary  of  the  sea. 

12.  The  two  Scottish  generals,  Macbeth  and  Banquo,  return- 
ing victorious  from  this  great  battle,  their  way  lay  over  a  blasted 
heath. 

13.  The  cottage  was  situated  in  a  valley,  the  hills  being  for 
the  most  part  crowned  with  rich  and  verdant  foliage,  their  sides 
covered  with  vineyards  and  corn,  and  a  clear,  transparent  rivulet 
murmuring  along  from  east  to  west. 

14.  This  done,  the  conspirators  separated. 

15.  This  being  understood,  the  next  step  is  easily  taken. 

16.  This  said,  he  picked  up  his  pack  and  trudged  on. 


262  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXVII. 

COGNATE  OBJECT. 

496.  Some  verbs  that  are  regularly  intransitive  may 
be  followed  by  a  noun  which  resembles  a  direct  object. 

The  horse  ran  a  race. 

The  general  smiled  a  sickly  smile. 

He  wept  bitter  tears. 

In  all  these  examples,  the  noun  that  follows  the  verb 
simply  expresses  once  more,  in  the  form  of  a  noun,  the 
action  already  expressed  by  the  verb.  Thus,  the  race 
is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  running  of  the  horse  ; 
the  tears  are  the  weeping ;  the  sickly  smile  repeats  the 
same  idea  already  expressed  in  the  verb  smiled. 

Nouns  thus  used  are  called  cognate  objects. 

497.  A  verb  that  is  regularly  intransitive  sometimes  takes 
as  a  kind  of  object  a  noun  whose  meaning  closely  resembles  its 
own. 

A  noun  in  this  construction  is  called  the  Cognate  Object  of 
the  verb  and  is  in  the  Objective  Case.* 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  used  as  a  cognate  object  in  such  expressions 
as  go  it,  he  went  it,  and  the  like.  These  are  colloquial  or  vulgar,  but 
extremely  idiomatic.  The  idiom  was  formerly  much  commoner  than  at 
present. 

498.  A  cognate  object  merely  repeats  in  some  way  the 
meaning  of  a  verb  whose  sense  is  already  complete. 

A  direct  object  completes  the  meaning  of  a  verb  by  denot- 
ing that  which  receives  or  is  produced  by  the  action 
(see  §  156). 

*  Cognate  means  "  related."  The  name  is  given  to  an  object  of  this  kind 
because  of  the  close  relation  between  its  meaning  and  that  of  the  verb. 


PREDICATE    OBJECTIVE.  263 

CHAPTER    CXVIII. 

PREDICATE   OBJECTIVE. 

499.  Examine  the  following  sentence :  — 

The  people  elected  Adams  president. 

We  observe  that  the  transitive  verb  elected  has  two 
objects,  (1)  the  direct  object,  Adams,  and  (2)  a  second 
noun,  president,  referring  to  the  same  person  as  the 
direct  object  and  completing  the  sense  of  the  predicate. 
This  second  noun  we  may  call  a  predicate  objective. 

500.  Verbs  of  choosing,  calling,  naming,  making,  and  think- 
ing, may  take  two  objects  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  Direct  Object,  and  the  second,  which 
completes  the  sense  of  the  predicate,  is  called  a  Predicate  Objective. 

The  predicate  objective  is  often  called  the  complementary  object,  because 
it  completes  the  sense  of  the  verb.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  objective 
attribute. 

Examples  may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

Washington  called  the  man  friend. 

The  nobles  made  the  prince  their  king. 

I  call  this  headache  a  nuisance. 

Csesar  appointed  Brutus  governor  of  a  province. 

I  thought  him  a  rascal. 

The  judge  deemed  him  a  criminal. 

The  club  chose  Thomas  secretary. 

501.  With  some  verbs  an  adjective  may  serve  as  a 
predicate  objective.     Tims, — 

His  rashness  makes  his  friends  uneasy. 
His  companions  thought  him  gentlemanly. 
I  call  such  conduct  unwise. 


264  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

The  fact  that  in  these  sentences  the  adjective  stands 
in  the  same  construction  as  the  predicate  objective  may 
be  seen  by  comparing  the  examples  below  :  — 

Adjective  as 
Predicate  Objective  Predicate  Objective 

His  companions  thought  him  a     His  companions  thought  him 

gentleman.  gentlemanly. 

I  call  such  conduct  folly.  I  call  such  conduct  unwise. 

502.  Predicate  objectives  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  nouns  in  apposition  with  the  direct  object. 

Appositive  Predicate  Objective 

The  pirates  charged  Kidd,  their     The  pirates  elected  Kidd  cap- 
captain,  with  treachery.  tain. 

(1)  In  the  first  sentence  the  appositive  captain  is 
simply  added  to  Kidd  to  describe  Kidd.  It  might  be 
omitted,  without  making  the  sense  incomplete  :  — 

The  pirates  charged  Kidd  with  treachery. 

(2)  In  the  second  sentence  the  predicate  objective,  cap- 
tain, is  not  a  mere  descriptive  word,  to  be  omitted  at 
our  pleasure.  If  we  cut  it  out,  the  sense  is  incomplete. 
"  The  pirates  elected  Kidd  "  would  at  once  suggest  the 
question:  " Elected  him  what ?  Captain?  or  cook?  or 
commodore  ?  "  The  predicate  objective  completes  the  mean- 
ing of  the  verb,  forming  a  vital  part  of  the  statement. 

In  this  construction  the  direct  object  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  object  of 
the  whole  idea  expressed  by  the  verb  and  the  predicate  adjective  or  objective. 
Compare  "  He  made  the  child  quiet  "  with  "He  quieted  the  child  " ;  "  He 
made  the  wall  white  "  with  "  Hewhitened  the  wall."  Made  quiet  =  quieted; 
made  white =whitened ;  and,  since  child  is  the  object  of  quieted  and  wall 
the  object  of  whitened,  these  same  nouns  are  clearly  the  objects  of  the 
phrases  made  quiet  and  made  white. 


PREDICATE    OBJECTIVE.  265 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Fill  each  blank  with  a  predicate  objective! 

1.  The  boys  elected  Will  Sampson of  the  boat  club. 

2.  I  always  thought  your  brother  an  excellent . 

■  3.  Do  you  call  the  man  your ? 

4.  The  governor  appointed  Smith . 


5.  Everybody  voted  the  talkative  fellow  a 

6.  The  pirates  chose  Judson  . 

7.  The  hunter  called  the  animal  a . 

8.  My  parents  named  my  brother . 

9.  I  cannot  think  him  such  a . 


10.  The  merchant's  losses  made  him  a  poor . 

11.  You  called  my  brother  a . 

Fill  each  blank  with  a  predicate  adjective. 

1.  A  good  son  makes  his  mother . 

2.  The  jury  declares  the  prisoner . 

3.  This  noise  will  surely  drive  me . 

4.  I  cannot  pronounce  you of  this  accusation. 

5.  The  sedate  burghers  thought  the  gay  youngster  very . 

6.  The  travellers  thought  the  river . 

7.  Our  elders  often  think  our  conduct . 

8.  I  call  the  boy for  his  age. 

9.  Exercise  makes  us 

10.  Nothing  makes  one  so as  a  good  dinner. 

11.  Do  you  pronounce  the  prisoner ? 

12.  Do  you  think  us ? 

III. 

Analyze  the  sentences  in  I  and  II,  according  to  the 
plan  described  on  page  131. 


266  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

IV. 
Pick  out  (1)  transitive  verbs,  (2)  direct  objects,  arid 
(3)  predicate  objectives. 

1.  Pope  had  now  declared  himself  a  poet. 

2.  The  people  call  it  a  backward  year. 

3.  He  called  them  untaught  knaves. 

4.  He  could  make  a  small  town  a  great  city. 

5.  She  called  him  the  best  child  in  the  world. 

6.  A  man  must  be  born  a  poet,  but  he  may  make  himself  an 
orator. 

7.  Fear  of  death  makes  many  a  man  a  coward. 

8.  Ye  call  me  chief. 

9.  The  Poles  always  elected  some  nobleman  their  king. 

10.  He  cared  not,  indeed,  that  the  world  should  call  him  a 
miser ;  he  cared  not  that  the  world  should  call  him  a  churl ;  he 
cared  not  that  the  world  should  call  him  odd. 

V. 

The  predicate  objective  becomes  a  predicate  nominative 
when  the  verb  is  changed  from  the  active  voice  to  the 
passive. 

Active  Voice  Passive  Voice 

{Predicate  Objective)  (Predicate  Nominative) 

The  people  elected  Grant  presi-     Grant  was  elected  president  by 

dent.  the  people. 

I  named  my  dog  Jack.  My  dog  was  named  Jack. 

They  think  such  conduct  unwise.     Such  conduct   is  thought   un- 
wise. 
The  noise  drove  me  mad.  I    was    driven    mad    by    the 

noise. 

Change  the  verbs  in  Exercises  n  and  iv,  above,  to  the 
passive  voice.  What  happens  to  the  predicate  objective 
or  adjective  ? 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  267 

CHAPTER    CXIX.* 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

503.  A  relative  pronoun  introduces  a  subordinate  clause, 
which  it  attaches  to  the  main  clause  by  referring  directly 
back  to  a  substantive  in  the  main  clause. 

This  substantive  is  called  the  antecedent  of  the  relative. 

504.  A  Relative  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  Antecedent  in 
Gender,  Number,  and  Person ;  but  its  Case  is  determined  by  the 
construction  of  its  own  clause  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
case  of  the  antecedent. 

505.  The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  that, 
as,  and  what. 

Who  and  which  are  inflected  as  follows :  — 

Sixg.  and  Pl.  —  Nam.,  who  ;  gen.,  -whose  ;  obj.,  whom. 
Sing,  and  Pl. — Nom.,  which;  gen.,  whose;  obj.,  which. 

That,  as,  and  what  have  no  inflection.  They  have  the 
same  form  for  both  nominative  and  objective  and  are 
not  used  in  the  genitive  case. 

As  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun  when  such 
stands  in  the  main  clause. 

506.  Examples  of  who,  which,  that,  and  as,  in  various 
constructions  may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

He  bowed  to  every  man  whom  he  met. 
Elizabeth  was  a  queen  icho  could  endure  no  opposition. 
The  stone  which  you  have  picked  up  is  not  gold  ore. 
The  king  that  succeeded  Henry  V.  was  a  mere  child. 
The  house  that  I  bought  last  week  has  burned  down. 
Such  money  as  I  have  is  at  your  service. 

*  Here  pages  117-19  should  be  reviewed. 


268  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

507.  Who  is  either  masculine  or  feminine,  which  is  neuter, 
that  and  as  are  of  all  three  genders. 

The  sentences  in  §  506  illustrate  the  agreement  of 
the  relative  with  its  antecedent  in  gender. 

508.  The  Plural  of  the  Relative  Pronouns  does  not  differ  in 
form  from  the  singular.  If  the  relative  is  the  subject  of  a  verb, 
however,  the  verb-form  must  be  singular  or  plural  according  as 
the  relative  pronoun  refers  to  a  singular  or  a  plural  antecedent. 

Hence  the  rule  that  a  relative  pronoun  must  agree 
with  its  antecedent  in  number  is  of  importance. 

The  boy  who  comes  to  school  late  will  be  punished.     [Singular.] 
All  the  boys  who  come  to  school  late  will  be  punished.     [Plural.] 

509.  Relative  Pronouns  have  no  distinction  of  form  for  the 
three  Persons  ;  but  they  are  regarded  as  agreeing  in  person  with 
their  antecedents. 

Hence  a  verb  which  has  for  its  subject  a  relative  pro- 
noun is  in  the  same  person  as  the  antecedent  of  the 
relative.     Thus,  — 

Why  do  you  attack  me,  who  am  your  friend?     [First  Person.] 
It  is  you  ivho  are  to  blame.     [Second  Person.] 
He  who  speaks  to  them  shall  die.     [Third  Person.] 

510.  The  Case  of  a  Relative  Pronoun  has  nothing  to  do  with 
its  antecedent,  but  depends  on  the  construction  of  its  own  clause. 

The  general  who  was  appointed  immediately  resigned. 

[Who  is  in  the  nominative,  being  the  subject  of  teas  appointed."] 

He  appointed  the  general,  who  immediately  resigned. 

[Who  is  in  the  nominative,  being  the  subject  of  resigned, 
although  its  antecedent  general  is  in  the  objective  case.] 

These  men  whom  you  see  standing  about  are  waiting  for  work. 

[Whom  is  in  the  objective  case,  being  the  direct  object  of  see, 
The  antecedent,  men,  is,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  nominative.] 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  269 

511.   A  Relative  Pronoun  in  the  Objective  Case  is  often  omitted . 

Relative  Pronoun  Expressed  Relative  Pronoun  Omitted 

The  stranger  bowed  to  every  man  The  stranger  bowed  to   every 

whom  he  met.  man  he  met. 

The  dog  that  you  bought  of  Tom  The  dog  you  bought  of  Tom 

has  run  away.  has  run  away. 

The   listener   heard  every   word  The  listener  heard  every  word 

that  he  said.  he  said. 

This  omission  of  the  relative  is  common  in  conver- 
sation and  in  an  easy  and  informal  style  of  writing. 
In  case  of  doubt,  express  the  pronoun. 

In  analyzing  a  sentence  in  which  the  relative  is 
omitted,  it  should  be  supplied. 


EXERCISES. 

I. 

In  Exercise  in,  pp.  118,  119,  pick  out  all  the  relative 
pronouns  ;  tell  their  number,  person,  and  gender ;  desig- 
nate their  antecedents ;  explain  their  case. 

n. 
Review  Exercise  n,  p.  118.     Give  your  reason  for 
using  one  relative  rather  than  another. 

in. 

Make  twelve  sentences  containing  the  pronouns  — 
who,  whom,  which,  whose,  of  which,  that,  as. 

IV. 

In  Exercises  n,  m,  pp.  118,  119,  see  how  many  rela- 
tives may  be  omitted  without  spoiling  the  sentences. 


270  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXX. 

GENDER   OF   RELATIVES. 

512.  The  relative  tvhich  is  commonly  used  in  referring 
to  the  lower  animals  unless  these  are  regarded  as  per- 
sons. This  is  true  even  when  he  or  she  is  used  of  the 
same  animals  (see  p.  143).     Thus,  — 

The  horse  which  I  bought  yesterday  is  a  good  trotter.  He  can 
go  a  mile  in  less  than  three  minutes. 

The  genitive  form  whose  is  freely  used. of  all  living 
creatures,  whether  they  would  be  designated  by  the 
pronoun  he,  by  she,  or  by  it.     Thus, — 

The  lady  whose  purse  was  lost  offered  a  large  reward. 

The  general  whose  men  were  engaged  in  this  battle  was  com- 
plimented by  the  commander-in-chief. 

The  butterfly,  whose  wing  was  broken,  fell  to  the  ground.  It 
was  picked  up  immediately  by  one  of  the  birds. 

In  the  case  of  things  without  animal  life,  however, 
the  tendency  is  to  use  of  which  instead  of  whose,  unless 
euphony  forbids.*  Thus,  of  the  sentences  that  follow, 
though  both  are  grammatical,  the  second  is  more  in 
accordance  with  modern  usage :  — 

The  tree,  whose  top  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  was  cut  down. 
The  tree,  the  top  of  which  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  was 
cut  down. 

The  choice  between  whose  and  of  which  is  rather  a 
question  of  style  than  of  grammar.  A  cultivated  ear 
is  the  best  guide. 

*  WTiose  is  particularly  common  when  the  relative  is  restrictive  (§  514). 


DESCRIPTIVE,  RESTRICTIVE   RELATIVES.       271 

CHAPTER    CXXI. 

DESCRIPTIVE   AND   RESTRICTIVE   RELATIVES. 

513.  Relative  Pronouns  have  two  uses,  which  may  be 
distinguished  in  the  sentences  that  follow :  — 

The  hat,  which  is  black,  belongs  to  me. 
The  hat  which  is  black  belongs  to  me. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  relative  clause  (which  is 
black)  merely  describes  the  hat  by  adding  a  fact  about  it. 
In  speaking,  a  pause  is  made  between  the  antecedent 
(Jiat)  and  the  relative  [which). 

In  the  second  sentence,  the  relative  clause  is  very 
closely  connected  with  the  antecedent  (hat),  and  there 
is  no  pause  between  them.  The  relative  clause  serves 
to  designate  the  particular  hat  which  is  meant ;  that  is, 
the  relative  confines  or  restricts  the  meaning  of  the  noun. 

In  the  first  of  these  uses,  the  relative  is  called  a  descrip- 
tive relative ;  in  the  second,  a  restrictive  relative. 

514.  A  Relative  Pronoun  that  serves  merely  to  introduce  a 
descriptive  fact  is  called  a  Descriptive  Relative. 

A  Relative  Pronoun  that  introduces  a  clause  confining  or 
limiting  the  application  of  the  antecedent  is  called  a  Restrictive 
Relative. 

515.  A  descriptive  relative  is  preceded  by  a  comma ; 
a  restrictive  relative  is  not. 

516.  Who,  which,  and  that  are  all  common  as  restrictive 
relatives ;  but  some  writers  prefer  that,  especially  in 
the  nominative  case. 

In  Exercises  n  and  in,  pp.  118,  119,  explain  why 
each  relative  is  descriptive  or  restrictive. 


272  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXIL 

THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN   "WHAT." 

517.  The  relative  pronoun  what  is  often  equivalent 
to  that  which. 

Thus,  in  the  second  of  the  sentences  below,  what  has 
exactly  the  sense  of  that  which  in  the  first :  — 

1.  The  fire  destroyed  that  which  was  in  the  building. 

[That,  the  antecedent  of  which,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun  and 
is  the  direct  object  of  destroyed.  The  relative  pronoun  which  is  the 
subject  of  was.~\ 

2.  The  fire  destroyed  what  was  in  the  building. 

[What,  being  equivalent  to  that  which,  has  two  constructions. 
It  serves  both  as  the  direct  object  of  destroyed  and  as  the  subject 
of  was."] 

518.  In  this  use,  what  has  a  double  construction:  —  (1) 
the  construction  of  the  omitted  or  implied  antecedent  that; 
(2)  the  construction  of  the  relative  which. 

In  parsing  what,  mention  both  of  its  constructions. 


EXERCISE. 

Change  each  what  to  that  which.     Explain  the  con- 
structions of  that  and  which. 

1.  We  seldom  imitate  what  we  do  not  love. 

2.  He  gives  us  what  our  wants  require. 

3.  What 's  mine  is  yours,  and  what  is  yours  is  mine. 

4.  What  you  have  said  may  be  true. 

5.  What  I  have  is  at  your  service. 

6.  The  spendthrift  has  wasted  what  his  father  laid  up. 

7.  What  I  earn  supports  the  family. 

8.  What  supports  the  family  is  Tom's  wages. 


COMPOUND  RELATIVES.  273 

CHAPTER    CXXIII. 

COMPOUND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

519.  The  Compound  Relative  Pronouns  are  formed  by  adding 
■ever  or  -soever  to  who,  which,  and  what. 

The  forms  in  -soever  are  used  in  the  solemn  style  or 
for  special  emphasis. 

520.  The  compound  relative  pronouns  are  thus 
inflected :  — 

Singular  and  Plural 

Nominative    whoever  (whosoever)  whichever  (whichsoever) 

Genitive  whosever  (whosesoever)  

Objective        whomever  (whomsoever)     whichever  (whichsoever) 

Whatever  (ivhatsoever)  has  no  inflection.  The  nomi- 
native and  the  objective  are  alike,  and  the  genitive  is 
supplied  by  the  phrase  of  whatever  (of  whatsoever). 

The  phrase  of  ivhichever  (of  whichsoever)  is  used 
instead  of  whosever  exactly  as  of  which  is  used  instead 
of  whose  (p.  270). 

521.  The  Compound  Relative  Pronouns  may  include  or  imply 
their  own  Antecedents  and  hence  may  have  a  double  construction. 

Whoever  sins,  he  shall  die.  [Here  he,  the  antecedent  of  who- 
ever, is  the  subject  of  shall  die,  and  whoever  is  the  subject  of  sins.'] 

Whoever  sins  shall  die.  [Here  the  antecedent  he  is  omitted, 
being  implied  in  whoever.  Whoever  has  therefore  a  double  con- 
struction, being  the  subject  both  of  si?is  and  of  shall  die.] 

Whoever  runs  away  is  a  coward. 

Whatever  he  does  is  right. 

Whichever  he  chooses  will  be  right. 


274  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   CXXIV. 

RELATIVE  ADJECTIVES   AND  ADVERBS. 

522.  Which,  what,  whichever,  and  whatever  are  often 
used  as  adjectives.     Thus,  — 

He  gave  me  what  money  was  on  hand. 
I  will  take  whichever  seat  is  vacant. 
He  has  lost  whatever  friends  he  had. 

523.  A  noun  limited  by  the  adjectives  what,  whatever, 
whichever,  may  have  the  same  double  construction  that 
these  relatives  have  when  they  are  used  as  pronouns 
(§§  518,  521). 

Thus,  in  the  first  sentence  above,  what  money  is  both 
the  direct  object  of  gave  and  the  subject  of  was. 

524.  A  number  of  adverbs  are  closely  related  in  mean- 
ing to  the  relative  pronouns.      Thus,  in 

The  town  where  this  took  place  is  a  frontier  settlement, 

the  word  where  is  an  adverb  of  place,  but  it  is  connected 
with  town  in  much  the  same  way  in  which  a  relative 
pronoun  is  connected  with  its  antecedent.  Indeed  we 
might  substitute  for  where  the  phrase  in  which. 

Similarly, 

The  time  tvhen  \_=at  which]  this  took  place  was  five  o'clock. 

525.  The  most  important  relative  adverbs  are :  — 

Where,  whence,  whither,  wherever,  when,  whenever,  while,  as, 
how,  why,  before,  after,  till,  until,  since. 

Such  words  connect  subordinate  clauses  with  main 
clauses  as  relative  pronouns  do.  Hence  they  are  called 
relative  or  conjunctive  adverbs.  They  will  be  further 
studied  on  page  296. 


RELATIVES.  275 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences  explain  the  con- 
struction of  that  and  of  which.  Then  change  that  which 
to  what  and  explain  the  double  construction  of  what. 

1.  That  which  man  has  done,  man  can  do. 

2.  I  will  describe  only  that  which  I  have  seen. 

3.  That  which  was  left  was  sold  for  old  iron. 

4.  That  which  inspired  the  inventor  was  the  hope  of  final 
success. 

5.  Captivity  is  that  which  I  fear  most. 

6.  That  which  we  have,  we  prize  not.     That  which  we  lack, 
we  value. 

7.  I  thought  of  that  which  the  old  sailor  had  told  of  storms 
and  shipwrecks. 

8.  Give  careful  heed  to  that  which  I  say. 

9.  That  which  offended  Bertram  most  was  his  cousin's  sneer. 
10.  That  which  is  done  cannot  be  undone. 

Substitute  whatever  for  that  which  whenever  you  can. 

ii. 

Explain  the  construction  of  the  relatives. 

1.  Whoever  he  is,  I  will  loose  his  bonds. 

2.  Give  this  message  to  whomever  you  see. 

3.  Give  this  letter  to  anyone  whom  you  see. 

4.  Whatsoever  he  doeth  shall  prosper. 

5.  Everything  that  he  does  shall  prosper. 

6.  I  owe  to  you  whatever  success  I  have  had. 

7.  I  owe  to  you  any  success  that  I  have  had. 

8.  Whoever  deserts  you,  I  will  remain  faithful. 

9.  He  gave  a  full  account  of  whatever  he  had  seen. 

10.  Whichever  road  you  take,  you  will  find  it  rough  and 
lonely. 


276  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXV.* 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS,   ETC. 

526.  The  pronouns  who,  which,  and  what  are  often 
used  in  asking  questions. 

527.  In  this  use  they  are  called  interrogative  pronouns. 

Who  is  your  best  friend  ? 

Whose  coat  is  this  ? 

Whom  do  you  see  in  the  street? 

What  is  the  name  of  your  sled? 

Which  of  the  three  is  the  best  scholar? 

528.  The  forms  of  the  interrogative  pronouns  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  corresponding  relatives  (see  p.  267). 

529.  The  objective  whom  often  begins  a  question  (as 
in  the  third  example  above).  In  such  cases,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  write  who. 

So  also  in  such  sentences  as  "  Whom  did  you  give  it 
to?"  where  whom  is  the  object  of  the  preposition. 

530.  Which  and  what  are  often  used  as  interrogative 
adjectives.     Thus,  — 

Which  seat  do  you  prefer? 
In  what  state  were  you  born? 

531.  The  interrogative  adjective  what  is  common  in 
exclamatory  sentences  (see  p.  31).     Thus, — 

What  a  rascal  he  is ! 

What  weather  we  are  having  I 

What  heroes  they  are  ! 

In  this  use  what  in  the  singular  is  often  followed  by 
the  indefinite  article  a  or  an. 

*  Here  pages  27,  28  should  be  reviewed. 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS.  211 

532.     Where,  when,  whence,  whither,  how,  why,  may  be 
used  as  interrogative  adverbs.     Thus,  — 

When  did  you  visit  Naples  ? 
How  do  you  spell  this  word? 


EXERCISES. 
I. 
Write  fifteen  interrogative  sentences,  using  all  the 
forms  of  the  interrogative  pronouns  and  adjectives. 

II. 
Give  the  gender,  number,  and  case  of  the  interroga- 
tive pronouns,  and  tell  what  nouns  the  interrogative 
adjectives  limit.     Mention  the  interrogative  adverbs. 

1.  Who  told  you  that  I  was  going  to-SaihJ?, 

2.  What  is  the  meaning  of  this  terrible-  summons  ? 

3.  Who  are  these  strange-looking  men? 

4.  What  dost  thou  want  ?     Whence  didst  thou  come  ? 
>—5.  What  is  the  creature  doing  here  ? 

6.  Which  of  you  is  William  Tell? 

7.  Where  did  we  go  on  that  memorable  night?  What  did  we 
see  ?  What  did  we  do  ?  Or  rather,  what  did  we  not  see,  and 
what  did  we  not  do? 

8.  Of  what  crime  am  I  accused  ?     Where  are  the  witnesses  ? 

9.  Whom  shall  you  invite  to  the  wedding? 

10.  Whose  are  the  gilded  tents  that  crowd  the  way 
Where  all  was  waste  and  silent  yesterday  ? 

11.  Whom  did  you  see  at  my  uncle's  ? 

12.  What  strange  uncertainty  is  in  thy  looks? 

13.  Which  of  you  trembles  not  that  looks  on  me? 

III. 
Write  ten  exclamatory  sentences  beginning  with  what. 


278  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER   CXXVI. 

THE   INFINITIVE   AS   A   NOUN. 

533.  The  infinitive  is  often  used  as  a  pure  noun. 

534.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  an  object  or  modifiers, 
may  be  used  as  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence. 

To  steal  is_disgraceful. 

To  kill  a  man  is  a  crime. 
•  To  read  carefully  improves  the  mind. 

The  infinitive  as  subject  is  especially  common  with 
is  and  other  forms  of  the  verb  be. 

535.  The  Infinitive  may  be  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative. 

His  fault  is  to  talk  too  much. 
His  custom  is  to  ride  daily. 

An  infinitive  often  stands  in  the  predicate  when  the 
neuter  pronoun  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 
Thus,  — 

It  is  good  to  be  here.     [Instead  of :    To  be  here  is  good.] 

It  is  a  crime  to  kill  a  man. 

It  is  human  to  err ;  it  is  divine  to  forgive. 

In  this  construction  the  infinitive  is  still  in  sense  the 
subject,  for  it  has  little  meaning  and  serves  merely  to 
introduce  the  sentence. 

In  this  use  it  is  often  called  an  expletive  (or  "filler"). 

536.  An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  the 
prepositions  about,  hut,  except.     Thus,  — 

I  am  about  to  return  home. 

There  was  nothing  to  do  but  to  acquiesce. 

She  did  nothing  but  cry  (or,  except  to  cry). 


INFINITIVE  AS  NOUN.  279 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Replace  each  infinitive  by  a  verbal  noun  in  -ing,  and 
each  noun  in  -ing  by  an  infinitive.     Thus,  — 

To  laugh  is  peculiar  to  man.  Laughing  is  peculiar  to  man. 

Tojish  is  great  sport.  Fishing  is  great  sport. 

1.  To  toil  is  the  lot  of  mankind. 

2.  To  hunt  was  Roderick's  chief  delight. 

3.  To  aim  and  to  hit  the  mark  are  not  the  same  thing. 

4.  To  swim  is  easy  enough  if  one  has  confidence. 

5.  Wrestling  is  a  favorite  rnral  sport  in  the  South  of  England. 

6.  To  cross  the  river  was  Washington's  next  task. 

7.  To  be  poor  is  no  disgrace. 

8.  Begging  was  the  poor  creature's  last  resource. 

9.  Waiting  for  a  train  is  tedious  business. 

10.  To  desert  one's  flag  is  disgraceful. 

11.  Feeling  fear  is  not  being  a  coward. 

II. 
Analyze  the  sentences  in  I,  above. 

in. 
Explain  the  construction  of  the  infinitives. 

•  1.  To  save  money  is  sometimes  the  hardest  thing  in  the  world. 

2.  It  is  delightful  to  hear  the  sound  of  the  sea. 

3.  It  was  my  wish  to  join  the  expedition. 

4.  Pity  it  was  to  hear  the  elfin's  wail. 

5.  To  be  faint-hearted  is  indeed  to  be  unfit  for  our  trade. 

6.  Her  pleasure  was  to  ride  the  young  colts  and  to  scour  the 
plains  like  Camilla. 

7.  'Tis  thine,  0  king,  the  afflicted  to  redress. 

8.  The  queen's  whole  design  is  to  act  the  part  of  mediator. 


280  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXVIL* 

THE   INFINITIVE   AS    A   MODIFIER. 

537.  The  infinitive  with  to  is  common  as  an  adverbial 
modifier  of  verbs  and  adjectives  and  as  an  adjective  modifier 
of  nouns. 

538.  In  each  of  the  following  sentences  the  verb  of 
the  predicate  is  followed  by  an  infinitive :  — 

1.  The  cat  hastened  to  climb  a  tree. 

2.  The  ogre  ceased  to  laugh. 

3.  The  whole  company  began  to  shout. 

4.  The  midshipman  tried  to  do  his  duty. 

5.  Everybody  wishes  to  enjoy  life. 

6.  Antony  prompted  the  Romans  to  avenge  Csesar. 

7.  I  permitted  him  to  call  me  friend. 

8.  We  go  to  school  to  learn. 

9.  Brutus  addressed  the  people  to  calm  their  agitation. 

10.  The  lawyer  rose  to  address  the  court. 

11.  He  bent  his  bow  to  shoot  a  crow. 

12.  You  must  not  sell  the  horse  to  buy  the  saddle. 

The  force  of  the  infinitive  varies  considerably  in  the 
different  sentences. 

In  Nos.  1-7  the  infinitive  completes  or  defines  the 
meaning  of  the  verb. 

In  this  use  infinitives  are  called  complementary  infini 
tives. 

The  verbs  of  Nos.  1-7  do  not  make  complete  and 
definite  sense  without  the  added  infinitive ;  whereas  in 
Nos.  8-12  the  part  of  the  sentence  that  precedes  the 
infinitive  makes  complete  sense  by  itself. 

*  For  the  so-called  infinitive  clause,  see  pp.  309,  310. 


INFINITIVE  AS   MODIFIER.  281 

The  infinitive  in  these  cases  does  not  serve  to  complete 
or  define  the  sense  of  the  verb,  but  to  add  something  new 

—  namely,  the  purpose  of  the  action,  —  to  a  statement 
already  complete. 

Both  the  complementary  infinitive  *  and  the  infinitive  of 
purpose  may  be  regarded  as  adverbial  phrases  modifying 
the  verb. 

539.  An  Infinitive  may  modify  a  verb  by  completing  its  mean- 
ing, or  by  expressing  the  purpose  of  the  action. 

540.  An  Infinitive  may  be  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
noun  or  an  adjective. 

In  this  use  the  infinitive  is  said  to  depend  on  the  noun 
or  the  adjective  which  it  limits.  It  may  be  regarded 
as  an  adjective  modifier  of  the  noun  and  an  adverbial 
modifier  of  the  adjective. 

Nouns  Adjectives 

Desire  to  rule  is  natural  to  men.  All  men  are  eager  to  rule. 

Quickness  to  learn  was  his  strong  He  was  quick  to  see  the  point. 

point. 

There  is  no  need  to  summon  assist-  It  was  necessary  to  call  for  help. 

ance. 

The  ability  to  laugh  is  peculiar  to  Only  human  beings  are  able  to 

mankind.  laugh. 

His  will  to  do  right  was  strong.  He  was  willing  to  try  anything. 

*  After  some  verbs,  the  infinitive  approaches  the  construction  of  a  pure 
noun.    In  such  case  it  is  often  regarded  as  the  object  of  the  verb.    Thus, 

—  "I  desire  to  see  you  "  (compare  "  I  desire  a  sight  of  you  ").  It  is  simpler, 
however,  to  regard  all  such  infinitives  as  complementary  phrases  and  to 
treat  them  as  adverbial  modifiers.  For  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the 
construction  of  the  infinitive  after  certain  adjectives  (for  example,  in  "  I 
am  eager  to  see  you  ")  from  its  construction  after  such  verbs  as  wish  and 
desire. 


282  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Explain  the  construction  of  each  infinitive,  —  as  noun, 
as  complementary  infinitive,  as  infinitive  of  purpose,  as 
modifier  of  a  noun  or  an  adjective. 

1.  All  men  strive  to  excel. 

2.  I  have  several  times  taken  up  my  pen  to  write  to  you. 

3.  The  moderate  of  the  other  party  seem  content  to  have  a 
peace. 

4.  There  was  not  a  moment  to  be  lost. 

5.  He  chanced  to  enter  my  office  one  day. 

6.  The  lawyer  had  no  time  to  spare. 

7.  They  tried  hard  to  destroy  the  rats  and  mice. 

8.  This  was  very  terrible  to  see. 

9.  He  continued  to  advance  in  spite  of  every  obstacle. 

10.  Even  the  birds  refused  to  sing  on  that  sullen  day. 

11.  The  bullets  began  to  whistle  past  them. 

12.  The  fox  was  quick  to  see  this  chance  to  escape. 

13.  That  gaunt  and  dusty  chamber  in  Granby  Street  seemed 
to  smell  of  seaweed. 

14.  Resolved  to  win,  he  meditates  the  way. 

15.  The  explorer  climbs  a  peak  to  survey  the  country  before 
him. 

n. 

Make  sentences  containing  each  of  these  words  fol- 
lowed by  an  infinitive  :  — 

(a)  Verbs  :  begins,  try,  hoped,  omits,  endeavored,  neglects, 
resolved,  strove,  undertook,  determined,  dares,  venture,  desires, 
wishes,  longs,  feared. 

(b)  Adjectives  and  Participles  :  able,  ready,  unwilling, 
glad,  loth,  reluctant,  eager,  sorry,  disposed,  determined,  pleased, 
shocked,  gratified,  content,  disturbed. 


POTENTIAL    VERB-PHRASES.  283 

CHAPTER    CXXVIII. 

POTENTIAL   VERB-PHRASES. 

541.  Several  auxiliary  verbs  are  used  to  form  verb-phrases 
indicating  ability,  possibility,  obligation,  or  necessity. 

Such  verb-phrases  are  called  potential  phrases,  that  is, 
"  phrases  of  possibility." 

542.  The  auxiliary  verbs  used  in  potential  phrases  are : 
may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should.  They 
are  called  modal  auxiliaries  and  are  followed  by  the  infini- 
tive without  to.* 

I  may  give  him  a  small  present. 
He  can  overcome  all  his  difficulties. 
We  might  help  them  if  we  tried. 
They  could  catch  fish  in  the  river. 
If  he  should  fall,  he  would  be  killed. 

543.  Potential  phrases  show  a  great  variety  of  forms,  — 
present,  preterite,  and  perfect,  active  and  passive.     Thus, 

I  may  send,  I  might  send,  I  may  have  sent,  I  might  have  sent, 
I  may  be  sent,  I  might  be  sent,  I  may  have  been  sent,  I  might 
have  been  sent,  etc. 

Such  phrases  may  easily  be  arranged  in  paradigms, 
like  that  on  page  246. 

They  are  often  called,  collectively,  the  potential  mood. 

*  The  fact  that  give,  etc.,  in  such  phrases  as  can  give,  are  infinitives  is 
not  apparent  from  modern  English.  We  use  the  verb-phrase  as  a  whole 
without  thinking  of  its  parts  or  their  grammatical  relation  to  each  other. 
A  study  of  older  English,  however,  makes  the  origin  and  history  of  the 
phrases  clear.  We  may  also  see  the  nature  of  these  constructions  by  com- 
paring "  I  can  strike  "  with  "  I  am  able  to  strike,"  "  I  may  strike  "  with 
"I  am  permitted  to  strike,"  "I  must  strike"  with  "I  am  obliged  to 
strike,"  and  so  on. 


284  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

544.  Can  is  regularly  used  to  indicate  that  the  subject 
is  able  to  do  something.  May  is  frequently  used  to  indi- 
cate that  the  subject  is  permitted  to  do  something. 

Thus,  "You  can  cut  down  that  tree  "  means  "  You  are  able  to 
cut  it  down,"  that  is,  you  have  strength  or  skill  enough  to  do 
so ;  whereas  "  You  may  cut  down  that  tree  "  means  simply  "  You 
are  allowed  or  permitted  to  cut  it  down,"  and  implies  nothing  as 
to  your  ability  to  carry  out  the  permission. 

Hence,  in  asking  permission  to  do  anything,  the  proper 
form  is,  " May  I?  "  not  "  Can  I?  "  For  example,  "May 
I  go  to  the  party  this  evening?"  is  the  correct  form, 
and  not  "  Can  I  go  to  the  party  this  evening?  " 

Note.  —  The  use  of  can  for  may  to  express  permission  is  a  very  common 
form  of  error,  but  should  he  carefully  avoided.    With  negatives,  however, 
can  is  the  common  form  rather  than  may,  except  in  questions.    Thus,  — 
Question  :  "  May  I  not  {or  May  n't  I)  go  to  the  party  this  evening?" 
Answer:  "No,  you  cannot  go  this  evening;  hut  if  there  is  a  party 
next  week  you  may  go  to  that." 

545.  May  often  indicates  possibility  or  doubtful  intention. 

I  may  go  to  town  this  afternoon.  [That  is,  It  is  possible  that 
I  shall  go.] 

546.  Must  expresses  necessity  or  obligation.      Thus,  — 

Brave  men  must  meet  death  fearlessly. 
You  must  not  disobey  the  law. 

Must,  though  originally  a  preterite  tense,  is  in  mod- 
ern English  almost  always  used  as  a  present. 

547.  Necessity  in  past  time  may  be  expressed  by  had 
to  with  the  infinitive. 

He  had  to  pay  dear  for  his  sport. 

548.  The  irregular  verb  ought  expresses  moral  obliga- 
tion, as  distinguished  from  mere  necessity. 


POTENTIAL    VERB-PHRASES.  285 

Ought  with  the  present  infinitive  expresses  a  moral 
obligation  in  present  time. 

Ought  with  the  perfect  infinitive  expresses  a  moral 
obligation  in  past  time. 

Children  ought  to  obey  their  parents.     [Present.] 

They  ought  not  to  act  so  selfishly.     [Present.] 

He  ought  not  to  have  made  such  a  mistake.     [Past.] 

The  general  ought  to  have  consulted  the  commander-in-chief. 

549.  Ought  (like  must)  was  originally  a  preterite,  but 
in  modern  English  is  always  used  in  a  present  sense. 

550.  Had  should  never  be  prefixed  to  ought. 

Correct  Incorrect 

I  ought  to  go  to  school.  I  had  ought  to  go  to  school. 

John  ought  not  to  have  hit  me.    John  hadn't  ought  to  have  hit  me. 
He  ought  to  go,  ought  n't  he  ?      He  ought  to  go,  had  n't  he  ? 

551.  The  preterite  should  is  often  used  in  the  sense 
of  ought.     Thus, — 

One  should  always  do  one's  best. 
You  should  have  given  me  the  letter. 

552.  In  subordinate  clauses  after  if,  though,  when, 
until,  etc.,  shall  and  should  are  used  in  all  three  persons 
unless  the  subject  is  thought  of  as  wishing  or  consenting, 
when  will  and  would  are  correct. 

If  he  shall  offend,  he  will  be  punished.     [Futurity.] 
If  he  should  offend,  he  would  be  punished.     [Futurity.] 
If  you  should  try,  you  could  do  this.     [Futurity.] 
If  /  would  consent,  all  would  be  well.     [Willingness.] 
If  you  would  agree,  I  should  be  glad.     [Willingness.] 

When  duty  or  obligation  is  expressed,  should  is  of  course  the  auxiliary 
for  all  three  persons  (see  §  551),  in  both  principal  and  subordinate  clauses. 


286  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISES. 
I. 

Pick  out   the    potential  verb-phrases.     Explain   the 
meaning  of  each  phrase. 

1.  She  might  have  held  back  a  little  longer. 

2.  The  French  officer  might  as  well  have  said  it  all 
aloud. 

3.  Is  it  possible  that  you  can  have  talked  so  wildly  ? 

4.  An  honest  man  may  take  a  knave's  advice. 

5.  If  he  cannot  conquer  he  may  properly  retreat. 

6.  I  arrived  at  Oxford  with  a  stock  of  erudition  that  micrht 
have  puzzled  a  doctor,  and  a  degree  of  ignorance  of  which  a 
schoolboy  would  have  been  ashamed. 

7.  From  the  hall  door  she  could  look  down  the  park. 

8.  Early  activity  may  prevent  late  and  fruitless  violence. 

9.  Lear  at  first  could  not  believe  his  eyes  or  ears. 

10.  May  I  come  back  to  tell  you  how  I  succeed  ? 

11.  We  might  have  had  quieter  neighbors. 

12.  It  must  then  have  been  nearly  midnight. 

13.  We  must  have  walked  at  least  a  mile  in  this  wood. 

14.  When  bad  men  combine,  the  good  must  associate. 

15.  I  ought  to  be  allowed  a  reasonable  freedom. 

16.  He  must  and  shall  come  back. 

17.  Something  must  have  happened  to  Erne. 

18.  He  would  not  believe  this  story,  even  if  you  should  prove 
it  by  trustworthy  witnesses. 

19.  Would  you  help  me  if  I  should  ask  it? 

20.  Should  you  care  if  I  were  to  fail? 

21.  You  should  obey  me  if  you  were  my  son. 

22.  If  he  should  visit  Chicago,  would  he  call  on  me? 

23.  I  would  go  if  the  others  would. 

II. 

Analyze  the  sentences  in  I,  above. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  AWOD:'j  2&7 

*OS  HHGBUBS,  CRU 

CHAPTER    CXXIX. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

553.  Besides  the  inflections  of  the  indicative  and  the 
imperative,  the  English  verb  has  a  set  of  forms  which 
belong  to  the  subjunctive  mood. 

554.  In  older  English  the  special  subjunctive  forms 
were  common  hi  a  variety  of  uses,  and  this  is  still  true 
of  poetry  and  the  solemn  style.  In  ordinary  modern 
prose,  however,  such  forms  are  rare,  and  in  conversa- 
tion they  are  hardly  ever  heard,  except  in  the  case  of 
the  copula  be. 

555.  The  main  forms  of  the  subjunctive  mood  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  paradigm. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 

Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  If  I  be.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  thou  be.  If  you  (or  ye)  be. 

3.  If  he  be.  If  they  be. 

Preterite  Tense 

Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  If  I  were.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  thou  wert.  If  you  (or  ye)  were. 

3.  If  he  were.  If  they  were. 

If  is  prefixed  to  each  of  these  forms  because  it  is  in 
clauses  beginning  with  if  that  the  subjunctive  is  com- 
monest in  modern  English.  If  however,  is  of  course 
no  part  of  the  subjunctive  inflection. 


288  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

556.  In  other  verbs,  the  subjunctive  active  has  the  same 
forms  as  the  indicative,  except  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons singular  of  the  present  tense,  which  are  like  the  first 
person :  — 

Indicative  Subjunctive 

1.  I  find.  If  I  find. 

2.  Thou  findest.  If  thou  find. 

3.  He  finds.  If  he,  find. 

557.  In  the  passive  subjunctive,  the  subjunctive  forms 
of  the  copula  (§  555)  are  used  as  auxiliaries  :  —  Present, 
if  I  be  struck  ;  Preterite,  if  I  were  struck. 

558.  Progressive  verb-phrases  in  the  subjunctive  may  be 
formed  by  means  of  the  copula  :  —  Present,  if  I  be  strik- 
ing ;  Preterite,  if  I  were  striking. 

The  present  is  rare ;  the  preterite  is  in  common  use. 

559.  In  the  future  and  future  perfect  verb-phrases  the 
auxiliary  is  shall  for  all  three  persons.     Thus,  — 

If  I  (he)  shall  strike,  if  thou  shalt  strike. 

If  I  (he)  shall  have  struck,  if  thou  shalt  have  struck. 

Volition,  however,  may  be  expressed  by  will. 

If  I  will  consent,  he  will  begin  at  once. 
Nothing  can  be  done  if  you  will  not  help. 
If  Jack  will  study,  he  can  learn  his  lesson. 

In  an  advanced  study  of  English  grammar  it  is  worth  while  to  attempt 
to  distinguish  the  subjunctive  from  the  indicative  by  historical  and  logical 
tests,  even  when  its  forms  are  identical  with  those  of  the  indicative.  But 
the  beginner  should  not  be  expected  to  split  hairs.  It  is  enough  if  he  learns 
to  recognize  those  forms  in  which  the  subjunctive  really  differs  from  the 
indicative.  When  he  comes  to  study  the  constructions  of  the  subjunctive 
in  later  chapters,  he  will  be  able  in  some  cases  to  distinguish  between  the 
subjunctive  and  the  indicative  character  of  certain  identical  forms,  but  till 
then  the  matter  should  be  left  largely  in  abeyance. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  IN    WISHES.  289 

CHAPTER    CXXX. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  WISHES  AND  EXHORTATIONS. 

560.  The  English  subjunctive  was  once  very  common 
in  both  dependent  and  independent  clauses  ;  but  it  is 
now  confined  to  a  few  special  constructions. 

561.  The  Subjunctive  is  often  used  in  Wishes  or  Prayers. 

Heaven  forgive  him!  God  forbid ! 

The  Lord  help  the   poor  crea-  God  grant  us  peace  ! 

tures  !  The  saints  protect  you ! 

The  Lord  be  with  you !  Oh  !  that  my  father  were  here  ! 

God  help  our  country !  Oh  !  that  money  grew  on  trees  ! 

In  the  first  seven  examples,  the  wish  is  expressed  in  an  independent 
sentence.  In  the  last  two,  the  construction  is  subordinate,  —  the  that- 
clause  being  the  object  of  an  unexpressed  "  I  wish  "  (or  the  like). 

The  verbs  may  and  would  in  such  expressions  of  wish  as  "  May  all  go 
well  with  you  !  "  "  Would  that  I  were  with  him !  "  were  originally  sub- 
junctives.    Would  stands  for  I  would,  that  is,  I  should  wish. 

562.  Exhortations  in  the  first  person  plural  sometimes 
take  the  subjunctive  in  elevated  or  poetical  style.    Thus, 

Strike  we  a  blow  for  freedom !  [That  is,  in  plain  prose,  Let 
us  strike  a  blow  for  freedom !] 

In  ordinary  language  such  exhortations  are  regularly 
expressed  by  let  us  followed  by  the  infinitive.     Thus, — 

Let  us  tell  our  friends. 
Let  us  seek  for  gold. 
Let  us  try  this  road. 
Let  us  not  be  cowardly. 

In  this  construction  let  is  a  verb  in  the  imperative,  us  is  its  object,  and 
the  infinitive  (tell,  seek,  without  to)  depends  on  let. 


290  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXXI. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  CONCESSIONS,    CONDITIONS,   ETC. 

563.  The  subjunctive  is  used  after  though,  although,  to 
express  a  concession  not  as  a  fact  but  as  a  supposition. 
Thus,  — 

Though  this  be  true,  we  need  not  be  anxious. 
Though  he  were  my  brother,  I  should  condemn  him. 

The  indicative  is  regularly  used  after  though  and  al- 
though when  the  concession  is  stated  as  a  fact.     Thus,  — 

Though  he  is  my  brother,  he  does  not  resemble  me. 

Though  John  was  present,  he  took  no  part  in  the  proceedings. 

564.  After  if  and  unless,  expressing  condition,  the  sub- 
junctive may  be  used  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

If  this  be  true,  I  am  sorry  for  it.  [It  may  or  may  not  be 
true.] 

If  he  find  this  out,  he  will  be  angry.  [He  may  or  may  not 
find  it  out.] 

If  this  were  true,  I  should  be  sorry  for  it.  [It  is  not  true ; 
hence  I  am  not  sorry.] 

If  this  had  been  true,  I  should  have  been  sorry  for  it.  [It  was 
not  true ;  hence  I  was  not  sorry.] 

565.  In  conditional  clauses,  the  present  subjunctive  de- 
notes either  present  or  future  time.  It  suggests  a  doubt 
as  to  the  truth  of  the  supposed  case,  but  not  decisively. 
(See  examples  1  and  2,  above.) 

The  preterite  subjunctive  refers  to  present  time.  It  im- 
plies that  the  supposed  case  is  not  a  fact.     (Example  3.) 

The  pluperfect  subjunctive  refers  to  past  time.  It  im- 
plies that  the  supposed  case  was  not  a  fact.     (Example  4.) 


USES    OF   THE  SUBJUNCTIVE.  291 

566.  Condition  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  subjunctive 
without  if.  In  this  construction  the  verb  precedes  the 
subject.     Thus,  — 

Were  my  brother  here,  he  would  protect  me.  [That  is :  If 
my  brother  were  here — .] 

Had  you  my  troubles,  you  would  despair.  [That  is  :  If  you 
had  my  troubles  — .] 

Had  the  boat  capsized,  eveiy  man  of  them  would  have  been 
drowned. 

In  modern  English,  this  construction  is  confined  to  were  and  had;  hut 
it  was  formerly  common  with  other  verbs. 

567.  After  as  if  (as  though),  the  preterite  subjunctive  is 
used.     Thus,  — 

He  acts  as  if  he  ivere  angry.     [Not  :  as  if  he  was  angry.] 
You  speak  as  if  I  ivere  your  enemy.     [Not  :  as  if  I  was."] 

568.  The  subjunctive  is  occasionally  used  after  that,  lest, 
before,  until,  etc.,  in  subordinate  clauses  referring  to  the 
future  and  commonly  expressing  purpose.     Thus,  — 

Sustain  him,  that  he  faint  not. 
I  will  help  him,  lest  he  die. 
We  will  abide  until  he  come. 

These  constructions  are  confined  to  poetry  and  the 
solemn  style. 

569.  In  ordinary  English  Ave  say  — 

Hold  him  up,  so  that  (or  in  order  that)  he  may  not  fall. 
We  will  wait  till  he  comes. 

Thus  old  subjunctive  constructions  are  in  modern  Eng- 
lish often  replaced  by  the  indicative  or  by  potential  verb- 
phrases  with  may,  might,  should. 


292  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXXII. 

VARIOUS  USES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

570.  The  subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  to  express  not 
what  is  or  was  but  what  would  be  or  would  have  been  the 
case.     Thus,  — 

It  were  belter  to  eat  husks  than  to  starve. 

Tt  had  been  belter  for  him  if  he  had  never  been  born. 

This  construction  is  old-fashioned.  Modern  English 
commonly  uses  would  be  or  would  have  been  instead :  as, 

It  icould  be  better  to  eat  husks  than  to  starve. 

571.  The  preterite  subjunctive  had  is  common  in  had 
rather  and  similar  phrases.     Thus,  — 

I  had  rather  die  than  be  a  slave. 
You  had  better  be  careful. 
I  had  as  lief  do  it  as  not. 

Had  in  this  construction  is  sometimes  regarded  as 
erroneous  or  inelegant ;  but  the  idiom  is  old  and  well 
established,  and  has  first-rate  modern  usage  in  its  favor. 


EXERCISES. 

i. 


Make  a  table  of  all  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  forms 
of  the  verbs  be,  have,  do,  bind,  declare,  in  the  present  and 
preterite  active.     (See  §  555.) 

Make  a  similar  table  for  the  present  and  preterite  pas- 
sive of  send,  bind,  declare. 


USES    OF    THE   SUBJUNCTIVE.  293 

II. 
Explain  the  form,  use,  and  meaning  of  each  subjunctive. 

1.  Mine  be  a  cot  beside  the  hill. 

2.  Ruin  seize  thee,  ruthless  king ! 

3.  It  were  madness  to  delay  longer. 

4.  Of  great  riches  there  is  no  real  use,  except  it  be  in  the 
distribution. 

5.  King  though  he  be,  he  may  be  weak. 

6.  "  God  bless  you,  my  dear  boy  !  "  Pendennis  said  to  Arthur. 

7.  Your  ladyship  were  best  to  have  some  guard  about  you,  if 
he  come  ;  for,  sure,  the  man  is  tainted  in  's  wits. 

8.  It  is  Jove's  doing,  and  Jove  make  me  thankful ! 

9.  If  this  were  played  upon  a  stage  now,  I  could  condemn  it 
as  an  impi-obable  fiction. 

10.  Go  we,  as  well  as  haste  will  suffer  us, 
To  this  unlooked  for,  unprepared  pomp. 

11.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it ! 

12.  "Walk  in."     "I  had  rather  walk  here,  I  thank  you." 

13.  He  looks  as  if  he  were  afraid. 

14.  I  should  have  answered  if  I  had  been  you. 

15.  God  in  thy  good  cause  make  thee  prosperous ! 

16.  These  words  hereafter  thy  tormentors  be  ! 

17.  Had  I  a  son,  I  would  bequeath  him  a  plough. 

18.  There 's  matter  in  't  indeed  if  he  be  angry. 

19.  I  wish  I  were  at  Naples  this  moment. 

20.  If  he  were  honest,  he  would  pay  his  debts. 

21.  If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  might  ride. 

22.  No  man  cried,  "  God  save  him  !  " 

23.  By  heaven,  methinks  it  were  an  easy  leap 

To  pluck  bright  honor  from  the  pale-faced  inoou. 

24.  Unless  my  study  and  my  books  be  false, 
That  argument  you  held  was  wrong  in  you. 

25.  Take  heed  lest  thou  fall. 

26.  Though  he  be  angry,  he  can  do  no  harm. 


294  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXXIIL 

THE  THOUGHT  IN  THE  SENTENCE. 

572.  We  have  now  studied  the  main  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  English  grammar,  —  that  is,  we  have  observed 
how  those  signs  that  we  call  words  perform  their  task  of 
signifying,  or  expressing,  thought. 

Thought,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  rudely  and  imper- 
fectly uttered  by  means  of  single  words.  For  its  complete 
expression,  however,  words  must  be  combined  into  sentences. 
This  combination,  too,  must  be  made  in  accordance  with 
definite  principles,  or  laws  ;  otherwise  language  would 
be  so  confused  that  nobody  could  understand  his 
neighbor. 

In  studying  the  laws  that  govern  the  structure  of 
sentences,  we  have  found  that  a  very  simple  thought 
may  be  expressed  in  a  very  simple  sentence,  consisting 
of  a  single  noun  and  a  single  verb. 

Such  sentences,  however,  do  not  carry  us  far.  To 
make  clear  the  various  shades  of  meaning  which  our 
language  has  to  convey,  words  and  groups  of  words 
must  be  used  to  modify  the  subject  and  predicate ;  and 
this  process  of  modification  results  in  the  building  up 
of  complicated  sentences  that  sometimes  consist  of 
several  clauses. 

Such,  complicated  sentences,  however,  may  always  be 
analyzed  (or  broken  up)  into  their  elements,  —  and  in  this 
process  of  analysis  we  are  able  to  see  clearly  the  relations 
which  the  different  parts  of  the  sentence  bear  to  each 
other  in  their  common  task,  —  the  full  and  exact  expression 
of  thought. 


SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES.  295 

Among  these  elements  of  expression,  we  have  found 
that  subordinate  clauses  are  of  great  importance  ;  for  by 
means  of  them  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  may  be 
changed   or  modified  at  pleasure.* 

Subordinate  clauses,  as  we  have  learned,  may  serve  as 
nouns,  as  adjective  modifiers,  or  as  adverbial  modifiers,  and 
they  may  be  connected  with  the  main  clause  by  various 
words  (such  as  relative  pronouns,  relative  adverbs,  and 
subordinate  conjunctions),  —  each  of  which  has  its 
special  office  in  the  common  work  of  language. 

We  must  now  carry  our  study  of  the  thought  in  the 
sentence  a  step  farther,  and  ask  what  are  the  main  varieties 
of  thought  that  are  expressed  by  the  different  kinds  of 
subordinate  clauses.  To  this  study  the  chapters  that 
follow  are   devoted,  t 

We  shall  find  that  most  subordinate  clauses  may  be 
easily  classified  in  accordance  with  their  meaning.  We 
shall  also  observe  that  the  subordinate  conjunction  or  other 
word  which  introduces  such  a  clause  not  only  serves  as 
a  connective  but  also  suggests,  in  most  cases,  what  the 
general  sense  of  the  clause  is  to  be. 

These  chapters  are  not  intended  to  be  worked  through 
mechanically.  Still  less  are  they  meant  to  be  committed 
to  memory.  Their  purpose  is  to  lead  the  student  to 
recognize,  in  his  own  speech,  oral  or  written,  and  in  the 
speech  of  others,  some  of  the  important  varieties  of 
human  thought,  and  to  see  how  language  behaves  in  express- 
ing these  different  ideas. 

*  In  connection  with  this  chapter  the  summary  chapter  on  the  Structure 
of  Sentences  (pp.  131-133)  should  be  consulted  if  the  matter  is  not  fresh  in 
the  pupil's  mind. 

f  Chapters  CXXXIV-CXLII. 


296  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER  CXXXIV.* 

SUBORDINATE   CLAUSES   CLASSIFIED. 

573.  Subordinate  or  dependent  clauses  express  a  great 
variety  of  ideas  and  are  attached  to  main  clauses  by 
different  kinds  of  words. 

The  word  which  attaches  a  subordinate  clause  to  a 
main  clause  is  said  to  introduce  the  subordinate  clause. 

574.  A  subordinate  clause  may  be  introduced  by  (1) 
a  relative  or  an  interrogative  pronoun,  (2)  a  relative  or 
an  interrogative  adverb,  (3)  a  subordinate  conjunction. 

The  relative  pronouns  are:  who,  which,  what,  that  (=who  or 
ivhich),  as  (after  such),  and  the  compound  relatives  whoever,  which- 
ever, whatever.    Their  uses  have  already  been  studied  (pp.  267  ff.). 

The  chief  relative  adverbs  are :  when,  whenever,  since,  until, 
be/ore,  after,  where,  whence,  whither,  wherever,  why,  as,  how. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are :  who,  which,  what. 

The  interrogative  adverbs  are :  when,  where,  whence,  whither, 
how,  why. 

The  most  important  subordinate  conjunctions  are :  because, 
since  (=  because),  though,  although,  if,  unless,  that  (in  order  that, 
so  that),  as,  as  if,  as  though,  than. 

575.  Subordinate  clauses  may  be  used  as  adjective 
modifiers,  as  adverbial  modifiers,  or  as  substantives. 

576.  The  ideas  expressed  by  subordinate  clauses  may 
be  classified  under  (1)  time  or  place,  (2)  cause,  (3)  con- 
cession, (4)  purpose,  (5)  result,  (6)  condition,  (7)  com- 
parison (or  manner  and  degree),  (8)  indirect  statement, 
(9)  indirect  question. 

*  The  present  chapter  is  for  reference  and  review.  It  summarizes 
pages  297-307. 


CLAUSES    OF    TIME   AND   PLACE.  297 

CHAPTER   CXXXV. 

CLAUSES   OF  PLACE  AND   TIME. 

577.  An  adjective  or  an  adverbial  clause  may  express  Place 
or  Time. 

I.    Adjective  Clauses. 

The  town  where  John  lives  is  called  Granby. 

The  lion  returned  to  the  cave  whence  he  had  come. 

Show  me  the  book  in  which  you  found  the  poem. 

There  was  no  water  in  the  desert  through  which  he  passed. 

The  general  fell  at  the  moment  when  the  enemy  began  to  flee. 

Her  father  died  on  the  day  on  which  she  was  born. 

II.    Adverbial  Clauses. 

The  soldier  died  where  he  fell. 

He  found  his  knife  where  lie  had  left  it. 

You  make  friends  wherever  you  are. 

Whither  thou  goest,  I  will  go. 

Washington  lived  when  George  III.  was  king. 

The  poor  fellow  works  whenever  he  can. 

We  cannot  start  while  the  storm  is  raging. 

Jack  rose  from  bed  as  the  clock  struck  six. 

We  reached  our  inn  before  the  sun  went  down. 

Everybody  waited  until  the  speaker  had  finished. 

When  the  iron  is  hot,  then  is  the  time  to  strike. 

578.  Adjective  clauses  of  place  and  time  may  be  in- 
troduced by  relative  pronouns  (see  examples  above). 

579.  Adjective  and  adverbial  clauses  of  place  and  time 
may  be  introduced  by  relative  adverbs  :  as,  — 

Place  :    where,    whence,    whither,    wherever,    whithersoever, 
wherefrom,  whereto,  etc. 

Time  :    when,  whenever,  while,  as,  before,  after,  until,  since. 


298  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXXXVI. 

CAUSAL  AND  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES. 

580.  An  adverbial  clause  may  express  Cause. 

The  shepherd  fled  because  he  was  afraid  of  the  wolf 
The  bell  is  ringing  because  there  is  afire. 
Since  you  will  not  work,  you  shall  not  eat. 

581.  Causal  clauses  are  introduced  by  because,  since,  as, 
inasmuch  as,  and  other  subordinate  conjunctions  of  like 
meaning. 

Since  is  an  adverb  when  it  expresses  time  (§  579),  a  conjunction  when 
it  expresses  cause. 

582.  An  adverbial  clause  may  denote  Concession. 

583.  A  concessive  clause  is  usually  introduced  by  a 
subordinate  conjunction,  though,  although,  or  even  if.  It 
admits  (or  concedes)  some  fact  or  supposition  in  spite  of 
which  the  assertion  in  the  main  clause  is  made. 

Although  Smith  is  an  Englishman,  he  has  never  seen  London. 
I  admired  the  man,  though  he  teas  my  enemy. 
Though  this  be  madness,  yet  there  's  method  in  't. 
Such  an  act  would  not  be  kind,  even  if  it  were  just. 

584.  For  the  distinction  between  the  indicative  and 
the  subjunctive  in  concessive  clauses,  see  §  563. 


EXERCISES. 


Make  (1)  ten  complex  sentences  containing  clauses  of 
time  ;  (2)  ten  containing  clauses  of  place  ;  (3)  ten  con- 
taining causal  clauses  ;  (4)  ten  containing  concessive 
clauses. 


PURPOSE  AND  RESULT.  299 

CHAPTER    CXXXVII. 

CLAUSES   OF   PURPOSE   AND   OF   RESULT. 

585.  A  subordinate  clause  may  express  Purpose  or  Result. 

I.  Clauses  of  Purpose. 

Brutus  smote  Caesar  that  Rome  might  be  free. 

I  will  do  my  best  that  no  lives  may  be  lost. 

Tbe  sailors  cast  anchor  so  that  the  ship  might  not  drift  on  the 
rocks. 

The  bandits  fought  desperately  in  order  that  they  might  not  be 
taken  alive. 

Guide  him  faithfully  lest  he  lose  his  way. 

II.  Clauses  of  Result. 

The  castle  was  very  old,  so  that  it  fell  after  a  short  bombardment. 

The  messenger  was  so  tired  that  he  could  scarcely  stand. 

The  duke  received  me  so  courteously  that  I  was  quite  enchanted. 

586.  Clauses  of  purpose  may  be  introduced  by  the  sub- 
ordinate conjunction  that  or  by  a  phrase  containing  it 
(so  that,  in  order  that,  to  the  end  that,  etc.). 

Negative  clauses  of  purpose  may  be  introduced  by  that 
.  .  .  not  or  by  lest.  Lest  is  often  followed  by  the  sub- 
junctive (see  §  568). 

587.  Clauses  of  result  may  be  introduced  by  the  phrase 
so  that,  consisting  of  the  adverb  so  and  the  subordinate 
conjunction  that;  or  by  that  alone,  especially  when  so, 
such,  or  some  similar  word  stands  in  the  main  clause. 

588.  A  clause  of  purpose  or  of  result  may  be  either 
an  adverbial  modifier  (as  in  the  examples  in  §  585),  or  a 
substantive  clause :  as,  — 


300  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

My  purpose  was  that  the  wall  should  be  undermined.     [Predicate 

Nominative.] 

The  mayor  ordered  that  the  city  gates  should  be  shut.     [Object.] 
The  result  was  that  nobody  came.     [Predicate  Nominative.] 
His  speech  had  this  result,  that  everybody  went  to  sleep.     [Ap- 

positive.] 

589.    Purpose  is  often  expressed  by  the  infinitive  with 
to  or  in  order  to,  and  result  by  the  infinitive  with  as  to. 

He  worked  hard  to  earn  his  living. 

They  rowed  so  hard  as  to  be  quite  exhausted. 


CHAPTER    CXXXVIII. 

CONDITIONAL    SENTENCES. 

590.    Study  the  following  sentence :  — 
Caesar  deserved  death  if  he  was  a  tyrant. 

The  sentence  consists  of  two  clauses:  (a)  the  main 
statement,  "  Caesar  deserved  death  "  (the  main  clause) 
and  (b)  "if  he  was  a  tyrant"  (the  subordinate  clause). 

The  zj-clause  does  not  state  anything  as  a  fact.  It 
simply  expresses  a  supposition,  or  condition,  on  the  truth 
of  which  the  truth  of  the  assertion  made  in  the  main 
clause  depends. 

Such  a  sentence  is  called  a  conditional  sentence,  because 
it  states  a  fact  not  absolutely  but  conditionally. 

Other  examples  of  conditional  sentences  are  :  — 

If  money  were  plenty,  nobody  would  care  for  it. 
If  you  call  at  ten  o'clock,  I  shall  be  at  home. 
Nobody  will  help  you  if  you  do  not  help  yourself. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  301 

591.  A  clause  that  expresses  a  Condition  or  Supposition  in- 
troduced by  if,  or  by  some  equivalent  word  or  phrase,  is  called 
a  Conditional  Clause. 

A  sentence  that  contains  a  conditional  clause  is  called  a 
Conditional  Sentence. 

592.  A  conditional  sentence  in  its  simplest  form  con- 
sists of  two  parts: 

(1)  A  subordinate  clause,  commonly  introduced  by 
if,  and  expressing  the  condition. 

(2)  A  main  clause  expressing  the  conclusion,  that  is, 
the  statement  asserted  as  true  in  case  the  condition 
expressed  in  the  {/-clause  is  true. 

The  conditional  clause  is  often  called  the  protasis,  and  the  conclusion 
is  often  called  the  apodosis. 

593.  The  main  clause  of  a  conditional  sentence  is 
not  necessarily  declarative.  It  may  be  interrogative, 
imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

If  this  story  were  false,  what  should  you  do  ? 

Stand  still  if  you  value  your  life. 

What  a  pity  it  would  be  if  he  should  fail  I 

594.  A  conditional  clause  is  usually  introduced  by 
the  conjunction  if,  but  sometimes  by  other  conjunctions 
or  phrases  :  as,  provided  (or  provided  that),  granted  that, 
supposing,  on  condition  that. 

595.  In  a  conditional  sentence,  either  the  condition 
or  the  conclusion  may  come  first. 

The  dog  must  be  punished  if  he  steals. 
If  the  dog  steals,  he  must  be  punished. 

596.  A    negative  condition  is  commonly  introduced  by 

if  ■   .   .  not,  or  unless. 


302  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    OXXXIX. 

ADVERBIAL   CLAUSES. —COMPARISON. 

597.  An  adverbial  clause  introduced  by  as  if  may  express 
Comparison.* 

The  man  acted  as  if  he  were  crazy. 

You  look  as  if  you  were  very  happy. 

The  Arabs  treated  me  as  kindly  as  if  I  had  been  a,  Moslem. 

598.  The  subjunctive  were,  not  the  indicative  was,  is  used 
after  as  if. 

599.  As  and  than,  as  subordinate  conjunctions,  intro- 
duce clauses  of  comparison  or  degree. 

Albert  is  as  tall  as  I  [am]. 

Henry  is  taller  than  1  [am]. 

I  like  you  better  than  [I  like]  him. 

You  cannot  run  as  fast  as  he  [can]. 

You  can  play  ball  better  than  he  [can]. 

When  the  verb  is  omitted,  the  substantive  that  fol- 
lows as  or  than  is  in  the  same  case  in  which  it  would 
stand  if  the  verb  were  expressed.     Thus,  — 

Albert  is  taller  than  /.     [Not  :  than  me.] 
I  like  you  better  than  him.     [Not  :  than  \e.~\ 

Fill  the  blanks  below  with  he  or  him  as  the  construc- 
tion requires :  — 

James  is  a  better  scholar  than  . 


You  are  older  than  .  I  am  as  strong  as . 

You  can  run  faster  than .      We  are  as  careful  as  — 

*  Clauses  introduced  by  as  are  often  called  clauses  of  manner. 


SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES.  303 

EXERCISE. 

Tell  whether  the  subordinate  clauses  express  time, 
place,  cause,  concession,  condition,  purpose,  result,  or 
comparison. 

1.  As  flattery  was  his  trade,  he  practised  it  with  the  easiest 
address  imaginable. 

2.  Whenever  Macbeth  threatened  to  do  mischief  to  any  one, 
he  was  sure  to  keep  his  word. 

3.  His  armor  was  so  good  that  he  had  no  fear  of  arrows. 

4.  We  admire  his  bravery,  though  it  is  shown  in  a  bad  cause. 

5.  He  talks  as  if  he  were  a  Spaniard. 

6.  The  marble  bridge  is  the  resort  of  everybody,  where  they 
hear  music,  eat  iced  fruits,  and  sup  by  moonlight. 

7.  It  was  a  fortnight  after  this,  before  the  two  brothers  met 
again. 

8.  It  was  impossible  for  me  to  climb  this  stile,  because  every 
step  was  six  feet  high. 

9.  The  troops  were  hastily  collected,  that  an  assault  might 
be  made  without  delay. 

10.  Let  us  therefore  stop  while  to  stop  is  in  our  power. 

11.  King  Robert  was  silent  when  he  heard  this  story. 

12.  If  others  have  blundered,  it  is  your  place  to  put  them  to 
right. 

13.  If  Milton  had  any  virtues,  they  are  not  to  be  found  in 
the  Doctor's  picture  of  him. 

14.  Where  foams  and  flows  the  glorious  Rhine, 

Many  a  ruin  wan  and  gray 
O'erlooks  the  cornfield  and  the  vine, 
Majestic  in  its  dark  decay. 

15.  It  was  impossible  for  me  to  advance  a  step;  for  the  stalks 
were  so  interwoven  that  I  could  not  creep  through. 

16.  If  he  is  not  here  by  Saturday,  I  shall  go  after  him. 

17.  He  laid  his  ear  to  the  ground  that  he  might  hear  their 
steps. 


304  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXL. 

DIRECT   AND  INDIRECT   STATEMENTS. 

600.  In  a  direct  quotation  the  words  of  another  are 
repeated  exactly  as  he  spoke  or  wrote  or  thought  them. 

He  said :  "  There  is  gold  in  this  old  river-bed." 

My  friend  writes  :  "  I  am  going  to  Mexico  this  winter." 

"  I  have  to  work  for  a  living,"  said  the  ant. 

"  The  goose  is  fat  and  tender,"  thought  the  fox. 

601.  In  an  indirect  quotation  the  words  or  thoughts  of 
another  are  repeated  in  substance,  but  not  always  in 
exactly  their  original  form. 

An  indirect  quotation  takes  the  form  of  a  subordinate 
clause  dependent  on  some  word  of  saying  or  thinking, 
and  introduced  by  the  conjunction  that. 

He  said  that  there  teas  gold  in  this  old  river-bed. 

My  friend  writes  that  he  is  going  to  Mexico  this  winter. 

The  ant  said  that  he  had  to  work  for  a  living. 

The  fox  thought  that  the  goose  was  fat  and  tender. 

602.  A  substantive  clause  introduced  by  th at  may  be  used 
with  verbs  and  other  expressions  of  telling,  thinking,  knowing, 
and  perceiving,  to  report  the  words  or  thought  of  a  person  in 
substance,  but  with  some  change  of  form. 

Such  clauses  are  said  to  be  in  the  Indirect  Discourse. 

603.  Direct  quotations  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  unless 
the  quotation  is  a  fragment  of  a  sentence.  They  are 
enclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

Indirect  quotations  begin  with  a  small  letter.  They 
usually  have  no  quotation  marks. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  305 

604.  Statements  in  the  indirect  discourse  are  usually 
the  objects  of  verbs  of  telling,  thinking,  etc. ;  but  they 
may  be  in  other  substantive  constructions. 

Some  one  reported  that  the  enemy  was  retreating.     [Object.] 

That  the  enemy  was  retreating  was  rumored  throughout  the 
camp.     [Subject.] 

The  rumor  was  that  the  enemy  was  retreating.  [Predicate  Nom- 
inative.] 

The  rumor  that  the  enemy  ivas  retreating  was  false.    [Appositive.] 


EXERCISES. 
I. 


Change  the  following  statements  to  the  form  of 
indirect  discourse  after  "  He  said  that." 

1.  I  found  this  diamond  in  South  Africa. 

2.  I  shall  sail  for  Yokohama  next  Tuesday. 

3.  My  grandfather  has  given  me  a  gold  watch. 

4.  I  am  not  fond  of  poetry. 

5.  I  honor  the  memory  of  Mr.  Gladstone. 

6.  Lieutenant  Peary  has  just  returned  from  the  Arctic  regions. 

7.  You  will  certainly  visit  the  pyramids. 

8.  John  is  stronger  than  Thomas. 

9.  This  bird's  wing  has  been  broken. 

10.  The  trapper  is  struggling  with  a  huge  bear. 

11.  My  home  is  on  the  prairie. 

12.  Louisiana  formerly  belonged  to  France. 

II. 

Copy  the  sentences  in  indirect  discourse  that  you 
have  made  in  Exercise  I. 

Turn  each  sentence  back  into  the  direct  form  and 
compare  the  results  with  the  original  sentences. 


306  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER  CXLI. 

INDIRECT   QUESTIONS. 

605.  We  have  learned  to  recognize  sentences  like  the 
following  as  interrogative  sentences  and  to  write  them 
with  an  interrogation  point :  — 

Who  is  president  ?  What  shall  you  do  ? 

Which  man  is  he  ?  Is  the  dog  mad  ? 

Such  interrogative  sentences  are  called  direct  questions. 

606.  A  question  expressed  in  the  form  actually  used  in  ask- 
ing it  is  called  a  Direct  Question. 

If,  now,  we  prefix  "  He  asked  "  to  the  sentences  given 
in  §  605,  we  have  our  choice  between  two  forms  of 
expression :  — 

I.  We  may  keep  the  direct  form  of  question.     Thus,  — 

He  asked  :  "  Who  is  president  ?  " 
He  asked  :  "  Is  the  dog  mad?  " 

II.  We  may  change  the  form  of  the  question  while 
keeping  its  substance.     Thus,  — 

He  asked  who  was  president. 

He  asked  whether  (or  if)  the  dog  was  mad. 

Each  of  these  new  sentences  contains  a  question,  but 
this  is  no  longer  expressed  in  the  direct  form.  It  has 
become  the  dependent  clause  of  a  complex  sentence,  the 
main  clause  being-  he  asked. 

Such  a  clause  is  called  an  indirect  question. 

607.  An  Indirect  Question  expresses  the  substance  of  a  direct 
interrogation  in  the  form  of  a  Subordinate  Clause. 


INDIRECT   QUESTIONS.  307 

608.  Indirect  questions  depend  on  verbs  or  other  expressions  of 
asking,  doubting,  thinking,  perceiving,  and  the  like. 

He  knew  what  the  man's  name  was.  [Direct  question  :  "  What  is 
the  man's  name  ?  "] 

John  saw  who  his  companion  pretended  to  be.  [Here  the  question 
which  presented  itself  to  John's  mind  was :  "  Who  does  my  com- 
panion pretend  to  be  ?  "] 

The  guide  tried  to  discover  which  way  led  out  of  the  cave.  [Here 
the  question  which  the  guide  proposed  to  himself  was :  "  Which 
way  leads  out  of  the  cave  ?  "] 

609.  Both  direct  and  indirect  questions  may  be  in- 
troduced (1)  by  the  interrogative  pronouns  who,  which, 
what;  (2)  by  the  interrogative  adverbs  when,  where, 
whence,  whither,  how,  why. 

Indirect  questions  may  be  introduced  by  the  subordinate 
conjunctions  whether  and  if. 

The  farmer  asked  Tom  whether  (or  if)  he  liked  fruit.  [The 
farmer's  question  was  :  "  Do  you  like  fruit  ?  "] 

610.  Indirect  questions  should  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  relative  clauses. 

Our  guide  found  the  road  which  led  home.     [Relative.] 
Our  guide  found  ivhich  road  led  home.     [Indirect  Question.] 

In  the  first  sentence,  which  is  a  relative  pronoun  refer- 
ring to  its  antecedent  road,  the  object  of  found.  We 
cannot  express  the  clause  as  a  question. 

In  the  second  sentence,  the  object  of  found  is  the 
whole  clause.  There  was  a  direct  question  in  the  guide's 
mind:  "Which  road  leads  home?'1  Which  is  an  inter- 
rogative adjective,  and  no  antecedent  is  thought  of. 


308  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

EXERCISE. 

Pick  out  the  substantive  clauses.  Give  the  construc- 
tion of  each  (as  subject,  object,  etc.),  and  tell  whether  it 
is  an  indirect  statement  or  an  indirect  question. 

1.  That  fine  feathers  do  not  make  fine  birds  has  always  been 
taught  by  philosophers. 

2.  Here  we  halted  in  the  open  field,  and  sent  out  our  people 
to  see  how  things  were  in  the  country. 

3.  I  do  not  imagine    that   you  find   me  rash  in  declaring 
myself. 

4.  What  became  of  my  companions  I  cannot  tell. 

5.  I  should  now  tell  what  public  measures  were  taken  by  the 
magistrates  for  the  general  safety. 

6.  You  see,  my  lord,  how  things  are  altered. 

7.  Now  the  question  was,  what  I  should  do  next. 

8.  He  said  that  he  was  going  over  to  Greenwich.     I  asked  if 
he  would  let  .me  go  with  him. 

9.  That  the  tide  is  rising  may  be  seen  by  anybody. 

10.  Ask  me  no  reason  why  I  love  you. 

11.  That  Arnold  was  a  traitor  was  now  clear  enough. 

12.  I  doubt  whether  this  act  is  legal. 

13.  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  Knox  had  a  soft  temper ; 
nor  do  I  know  that  he  had  an  ill  temper. 

14.  There  are  two  questions,  —  whether  the  Essay  will  suc- 
ceed, and  who  or  what  is  the  author. 

15.  The  shouts  of  storm  and  successful  violence  announced 
that  the  castle  was  in  the  act  of  being  taken. 

16.  The  stranger  inquired  where  the  mayor  lived. 

17.  That  all  is  not  gold  that  glitters  was  found  out  long  ago. 

18.  I  demanded  why  the  gates  were  shut. 

19.  I  doubt  if  I  ever  talked  so  much  nonsense  in  my  life. 

20.  T  solemnly  assure  you  that  you  are  quite  mistaken. 

21.  The  prince  soon  concluded  that  he  should  never  be  happy 
in  this  course  of  life. 


INFINITIVE    CLAUSES.  309 

CHAPTER    CXLII. 

INFINITIVE   CLAUSES. 

611.  Compare  the  following  sentences:  — 

John's  friends  wished  that  he  should  succeed. 
John's  friends  wished  him  to  succeed. 

These  sentences  say  the  same  thing,  but  in  different 

ways. 

In  the  first  sentence,  the  direct  object  of  wished  is 
the  noun  clause  that  he  should  succeed.  In  the  second, 
the  object  must  be  him  to  succeed,  since  this  group  of 
words  expresses  what  John's  friends  wished,  precisely 
as  the  noun  clause  does  in  the  first  sentence. 

What  is  the  construction  of  the  objective  him?  It 
is  not  the  object  of  wished;  for  I  wish  him  would  make 
no  sense.  It  appears  to  be  a  kind  of  subject  of  the  infini- 
tive to  succeed,  since  it  tells  who  is  to  succeed  and 
replaces  he,  which  stands  as  the  subject  of  should  suc- 
ceed in  the  first  sentence.* 

612.  A  kind  of  clause,  consisting  of  a  substantive  in  the 
objective  case  followed  by  an  infinitive,  may  be  used  as  the  object 
of  certain  verbs. 

Such  clauses  are  called  Infinitive  Clauses,  and  the  substan- 
tive is  said  to  be  the  Subject  of  the  Infinitive. 

613.  An  infinitive  clause  is  usually  equivalent  in 
meaning  to  a  noun  clause  with  that. 

*  In  §  420  we  learned  that  the  infinitive  has  no  subject.  The  con- 
struction which  we  are  now  studying  may  be  regarded  as  a  peculiar 
exception  to  that  rule. 


310  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

614.  Infinitive  clauses  are  used  (1)  after  verbs  of  wish- 
ing, commanding,  and  the  like,  and  (2)  after  some  verbs 
of  believing,  declaring,  and  'perceiving.*     Thus,  — 

My  father  wishes  me  to  become  a  lawyer. 
I  believe  him  to  be  an  honorable  man. 

615.  A  predicate  pronoun  after  to  be  in  an  infinitive 
clause  is  in  the  objective  case,  agreeing  with  the  subject 
of  the  infinitive.     Thus,  — 

You  know  the  culprit  to  be  him. 

You  believe  my  brother  John  to  be  me. 

We  know  it  to  be  her. 

Contrast  the  predicate  nominative  in  — 

You  know  that  the  culprit  is  he. 
You  believe  that  my  brother  John  is  i". 
The  culprit  was  thought  to  be  he. 
My  brother  was  believed  to  be  /. 
It  was  known  to  be  she. 

616.  After  see,  hear,  feel,  and  some  other  verbs,  the 
infinitive  without  to  is  used.    Thus,  — 

I  saw  the  sailor  climb  the  rope. 

The  hunter  heard  the  lion  roar  in  the  distance. 

I  felt  his  pulse  beat  feebly. 

They  watched  the  boat  drift  slowly  down  the  stream. 

They  could  not  perceive  him  move. 

617.  Make  ten  sentences  containing  infinitive  clauses 
after  verbs  of  wishing,  commanding,  believing,  declaring, 
etc. 

*  After  verbs  of  luishing,  <ti\,  they  express  purpose;  niter  verbs  of 
thinking,  etc.,  they  are  in  indirect  discourse. 


SEQUENCE    OF    TENSES.  311 

CHAPTER    CXLIII. 

SEQUENCE   OF   TENSES. 

618.  The  relations  of  tenses  in  the  complex  sentence 
show  great  variety.  The  general  principle,  however,  is 
simple :  — 

In  a  complex  sentence,  each  verb,  whether  in  the  main  or  the 
subordinate  clause,  takes  the  tense  appropriate  to  the  time  which 
it  expresses. 

Hence  the  subordinate  verb  may  or  may  not  agree 
with  the  main  verb  in  tense.     Thus,  — 

I  know  that  John  sells  horses.  [Both  verbs  in  the  present 
tense.] 

I  knew  that  John  sold  the  horse.  [Both  verbs  in  the  preterite 
tense,  expressing  past  time.] 

I  know  that  John  sold  his  horse  yesterday.  [Present  and 
preterite.] 

I  know  that  John  has  sold  his  horse.     [Present  and  perfect.] 

I  knew  that  John  had  sold  his  horse.     [Preterite  and  pluperfect.] 

I  know  that  John  had  sold  the  bay  horse  before  he  bought  the 
sorrel.     [Present ;  pluperfect ;  preterite.] 

Newton  discovered  that  the  force  of  gravitation  makes  apples 
fall.  [Discovered  is  in  the  preterite  because  Newton's  discovery  is 
past.  Makes  is  in  the  present  tense  because  it  expresses  a  general 
truth,  "  Gravitation  makes  apples  fall."] 

619.  Sentences  like  those  in  §  618  cause  no  trouble 
to  the  student,  except  in  the  case  of  the  last  example, 
the  rule  for  which  is  as  follows :  — 

A  general  or  universal  truth  is  expressed  in  the  present  tense, 
whether  it  stands  in  the  main  or  the  subordinate  clause. 


312  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

620.  The  relation  between  the  tenses  in  the  clauses 
of  a  complex  sentence  is  often  called  the  Sequence  of 
Tenses. 

This  term  should  not  be  understood  to  indicate  that  the  tense  of  the 
main  verb  "  governs "  in  any  way  that  of  the  subordinate  verb.  The 
tense  of  each  verb  is  determined  by  the  meaning  of  the  clause  in  which  it 
stands. 

621.  The  sequence  of  the  auxiliaries  may  {might), 
can  (could),  will  (would),  shall  (should),*  requires  especial 
attention.! 

622.  In  clauses  of  purpose  with  may,  might,  should, 
(1)  the  present,  may,  is  used  if  the  main  verb  is  in  the 
present  or  the  future  tense,  but  (2)  the  preterite,  might 
or  should,  if  the  main  verb  is  in  the  preterite  or  the 
pluperfect.     Thus,  — 

( tells       ) 
He  -<     ...         >  you  his  story,  that  you  may  know  the  truth. 

He  •]  [■  you  his  story,  that  you  might  know  the  truth. 

C  ordered         ~) 
He  <  ,     ,      7       .  >-  that  the  room  should  be  cleared. 
(  had  ordered  ) 

If  the  main  verb  is  in  the  perfect  tense,  the  clause  of 
purpose  sometimes  has  may  and  sometimes  might  or 
should.     Thus,  — . 

He  has  told  you  this,  that  you  may  (or,  might)  know  the  truth. 
He  has  ordered  that  the  gates  should  be  shut. 

*  May,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should  are  often  called 
modal  auxiliaries.     For  their  general  use,  see  pp.  283-5. 

t  The  sequence  of  these  verbs  is  not  different  in  principle  from  that  of 
other  verbs.  Their  uses,  however,  are  so  various  that  a  misunderstanding 
may  easily  arise  as  to  some  of  their  constructions.  There  are  many  niceties 
of  idiom,  and  a  full  discussion  would  require  much  space.  Only  the  main 
facts  are  here  given. 


SEQUENCE    OF    TENSES.  313 

The  choice  between  may  and  might  after  the  perfect 
tense  depends  on  the  meaning.  If  the  purpose  refers 
emphatically  to  the  future,  may  is  commonly  preferred. 

623.  Can,  will,  and  shall  are  often  used  in  subordinate 
clroises  when  the  main  verb  is  in  the  present  tense ; 
could,  would,  and  should,  when  it  is  in  some  past  tense. 
Thus,  — 

I  hope  that  he  can  come. 
I  hoped  that  ha  could  come. 

(  1  shall     ) 
I  hope  that  <  you  will  >  succeed. 
(  he  will    ) 
( hoped  ~\  (1  should      ~\ 

I  ■<  have  hoped  V  that  •<  you  would  >  succeed. 
(  had  hoped     )  (  he  would     ) 

624.  After  wish  in  the  present  tense,  ivould  and  could 
are  common  in  the  subordinate  clause.     Thus,  — 

I  wish  that  you  (he)  would  (or,  could)  come. 

625.  In  the  expression  of  general  or  universal  truths, 
may,  can,  and  will  are  proper,  even  when  the  main  verb 
is  in  the  preterite  (see  §  619).     Thus,  — 

He  discovered  that  men  may  always  be  mistaken. 
He  found  that  nobody  can  accomplish  impossibilities. 
He  proved  that  iron  will  always  float  in  mercury. 

626.  Must  is  almost  always  a  present  tense  in  modern 
English  (§  546).  It  may  be  used  in  the  subordinate 
clause  to  express  necessity  or  obligation  referred  to  the 
time  of  the  main  verb.     Thus,  — 

He  believes  that  he  must  go. 
He  believed  that  he  must  go. 


314  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

31ust  should  not  be  used  after  a  present  tense  to 
express  past  obligation  or  necessity.     Thus  we  say,  — 

He  knows  that  the  general  had  to  retire  (or,  was  obliged  to 
retire).  ["  He  knows  that  the  general  must  retire  "  would  refer  to 
present  necessity.] 

627.  For  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  in  concessions 
and  conditions,  see  pp.  290,  291.  For  the  preterite 
subjunctive  after  as  if,  see  §  598. 


EXERCISES. 


Fill  each  blank  with  the  proper  form  of  an  auxiliary 
verb.     Sometimes  more  than  one  form  is  possible. 

1.  The  citizens  took  measures  that  the  tax be  abolished. 

[May  or  might  ?] 

2.  The  cabin  is  chained  to  the  ground,  that  it not  be 

blown  over  in  the  winter.     [Mag  or  might  ?] 

3.  Jack  was  swimming  with  all  his  strength  in  the  hope  that 
he reach  the  shore  before  the  shark overtake  him. 

4.  Copernicus  discovered  that  the  earth round  the  sun. 

[Moves  or  moved  ?] 

5.  Newton  discovered  that  his  papers on  fire.     [Are  or 

were  ?~] 

6.  Could  you  doubt  that  there a  God  ?     [7s  or  was  f] 

7.  I  hope  that  you escape  this  danger.     [  Will  or  would  f] 

8.  He  believed  that  you fail  in  this.     [  Will  or  would?] 

9.  I  am  sure  that  I succeed.     [Shall  or  should  f] 

10.  We  were  confident  that  we not  be  drowned.     [Shall 

or  should  ?] 

11.  The  king  gave  orders  that  the  prisoner be  discharged. 


SEQUENCE    OF    TENSES.  315 

12.  I  shall  assign  you  a  post  of  honor  so  that  you dis- 
tinguish yourself. 

13.  He  feared  that  his  life stagnate  for  want  of  motion. 

14.  I  wish  you help  me.     [May  t  might  ?  can  ?  could  ?  will  ? 

ivould  ?] 

15.  The  governor  is  convinced  that  you disclose  the  plot. 

16.  The    islands    afford   few   pleasures,   except  to  the  hardy 

sportsman,  who tread  the  moor   and  climb  the  mountain. 

[Can  or  could  ?] 

II. 

Explain  the  tenses  used  in  the  subordinate  clauses. 
Show,  in  each  sentence,  the  time  of  the  verb  in  the 
subordinate  clause,  and  prove  that  the  tense  could  not 
be  changed  without  changing  or  destroying  the  sense. 

1.  They  who  remember  the  year  1800,  will  remember  also  the 
great  controversy,  whether  it  was  the  beginning  of  a  century  or 
the  end  of  one. 

2.  A  Quaker,  by  name  Benjamin  Lay,  took  one  of  his  compo- 
sitions to  Benjamin  Franklin,  that  it  might  be  printed. 

3.  He  found  that  a  great  misfortune  is  apt  to  weaken  the 
mind  and  disturb  the  understanding. 

4.  It  was  certain  that  Parliament  would  be  drawn  into  a 
struggle  with  the  Crown. 

5.  It  happened  that  they  had  not  an  equal  share  of  money. 

6.  Major  Pendennis  announced  to  his  nephew's  tutor  that 
the  young  fellow  would  go  to  college  in  October,  and  that  Mr. 
Smirke's  valuable  services  would  no  longer  be  needful. 

7.  I  promise  myself  so  much  from  you,  that  I  dread  the  least 
disappointment. 

8.  The  cottage  door  was  open,  so  that  they  could  see  their 
child  swinging  on  the  gate. 

9.  The  sage  endeavors  to  amuse  them,  that  they  may  pro- 
long their  visits. 

10.  He  was  of  opinion  that  Pen  would  distinguish  himself. 


31(3  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CHAPTER    CXLIV. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   PHRASES. 

628.  Phrases  may  denote  a  great  variety  of  relations, 
according  to  the  prepositions  that  introduce  them. 

The  ideas  or  relations  expressed  by  phrases  include, 
among  others,  (1)  place  in  which,  (2)  place  from  which, 
(3)  place  to  which  (or  limit  of  motion),  (4)  agency, 
(5)  instrument  or  means,  (6)  accompaniment. 

629.  Place  in  which  is  often  denoted  by  in,  within,  or 
at.     Thus,  — 

He  had  a  fever  when  he  was  in  Spain. 

The  beast  is  laid  down  in  his  lair. 

Stockbridge  sat  in  his  saddle,  immovable  and  silent  as  a  statue. 

In  greatness  is  no  trust. 

I  wonder  what  is  going  on  at  Drumston  now. 

Many  other  prepositions  may  denote  the  place  where :  as,  by,  on,  upon, 
beyond,  ac?,oss,  over,  under. 

630.  Place  from  which  is  often  denoted  by  from  or  out 
of.     Thus,  — 

Behold,  from  yonder  hill  the  foe  appears ! 

Banish  egotism  out  of  your  conversation. 

Brand  at  once  rose  and  went  out  from  the  shadow  of  the  trees. 

631.  The  place  to  which  (or  limit  of  motion)  is  often 
expressed  by  to  or  unto.     Thus,  — 

Go  to  the  gate,  —  somebody  knocks. 

Doctor  Portman  was  of  opinion  that  Pen  should  go  to  college. 

Quentin  then  betook  himself  to  his  own  chamber. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF  PHRASES.  317 

632.  The  agent,  or  doer  of  the  action  expressed  by  a 
verb  in  the  passive  voice,  is  usually  indicated  by  means 
of  the  preposition  by.     Thus,  — 

The  mutineers  were  led  by  the  boatswain. 

A  loud  shout  was  raised  by  some  of  the  bystanders. 

633.  The  instrument  or  means  of  an  action  is  often 
indicated  by  with,  by,  or  by  means  of.     Thus,  — 

This  letter  was  written  with  a  lead  pencil. 
The  gate  was  demolished  by  the  battering-ram. 
He  descended  by  means  of  a  knotted  rope. 

634.  Accompaniment  is  usually  expressed  by  with, 
along  with,  or  together  with.     Thus,  — 

The  corporal  approached  with  (or,  along  ivith)  seventeen  men. 
Hardship,  together  with  ill  health,  had  reduced  him  to  a  mere 
skeleton. 


EXERCISES. 


Pick  out  the  adverbial  phrases  and  tell  what  verb  is 
modified  by  each. 

Tell  which  of  the  phrases  indicate  the  place  in  which, 
the  limit  of  motion,  agency,  and  so  on. 

1.  The  emperor  and  royal  family  came  out  of  the  palace. 

2.  The  sea  appeared  paved  with  innumerable  faces,  upturned 
to  the  heavens. 

3.  It  was  a  wild  and  melancholy  glen, 
Made  gloomy  by  tall  firs  and  cypress  dark. 

4.  What  his  subjects  saw  in  their  king  was  a  pleasant  brown- 
faced  gentleman  playing  with  his  spaniels,  or  drawing  caricatures 
of  his  ministers,  or  flinging  cakes  to  the  water-fowl  in  the  park. 


318  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

5.  The  doctor  turned  round  and  looked  at  me  fixedly  from 
under  his  dark  eyebrows. 

6.  My  path  lay  across  a  wild,  bleak  moor,  dotted  with  low 
clumps  of  furze,  and  not  presenting  on  any  side  the  least  trace  of 
habitation. 

7.  Arbitrary  taxation,  arbitrary  legislation,  arbitrary  im- 
prisonment were  powers  claimed  without  dispute  and  unsparingly 
exercised  by  the  Crown. 

8.  "How  did  you  like  my  picture,  Edith?"  inquired  Lady 
Waldegrave.     "Should  you  have  known  me  by  it?" 

9.  My  orders  were  to  march  to  Clonmel. 

10.  The  Lieutenant  is  gone  down  to  Palmerston  this  morning, 
with  the  Secretary. 

11.  Either  the  young  Lee  will  visit  the  old  one  in  person,  or  he 
will  write  to  him,  or  hold  communication  with  him  by  letter. 

12.  He  conceived  the  design  of  penetrating  into  the  Pacific, 
whose  waters  had  never  seen  an  English  flag  ;  and,  backed  by  a 
little  company  of  adventurers,  he  set  sail  for  the  southern  seas  in 
a  vessel  hardly  as  big  as  a  Channel  schooner,  with  a  few  yet 
smaller  companions,  who  fell  away  before  the  storms  and  perils  of 
the  voyage. 

13.  There  was  the  noise  of  horses'  feet  and  merry  voices  in 
the  little  gravelled  yard  behind  the  house. 

14.  The  greater  part  of  the  Scottish  army  were  on  foot,  armed 
with  long  spears. 

15.  By  the  Act  of  1773,  Warren  Hastings  was  named  Governor- 
General  of  Bengal. 

16.  I  returned  home  to  repair  my  house,  miserably  shattered 
by  the  late  tempest. 

II. 

Make  five  sentences  containing  a  phrase  that  expresses 
the  place  in  which  ;  five  containing  a  phrase  expressing 
agency,  —  and  so  with  the  other  classes  mentioned  in 
§  628. 


LESSONS   IN   COMPOSITION. 


SECTION  I. 
INTRODUCTION 

Composition  is  the  orderly  expression  of  thought  in  connected 
discourse. 

The  word  composition  is  derived  from  the  Latin  con-  (con*-), 
"together,"  and  pono  (positus),  "put,"  and  means  literally  "the 
act  or  process  of  putting  together." 

Composition  may  be  oral  or  written  ;  it  may  reach  the 
mind  through  the  ear  or  the  eye.  The  same  principles 
hold  good  in  both  cases.  In  writing,  however,  greater 
care  and  exactness  are  expected  than  in  talking.* 

The  requirement  of  greater  exactness  in  written 
language  is  only  reasonable.  A  writer  must  express 
his  thoughts  without  the  aid  of  gesture,  emphasis,  or 
inflections  of  the  voice,  —  all  of  which  a  speaker  has  at 
his  command. 

It  is  not  enough  for  a  writer  or  speaker  to  mean  some- 
thing ;  it  is  his  duty  to  make  his  meaning  clear. 

Obscurity,  vagueness,  and  ambiguity  are  not  merely 
faults  in  composition,  —  they  defeat  the  very  purpose  of 
language,  which  is  the  expression  of  thought.      Indeed, 

*  See  Introduction,  page  xxii,  for  remarks  on  colloquial  language. 

310 


320  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

a  piece  of  writing  that  contains  these  faults  can  hardly 
be  said  to  be  "  composed  "  at  all. 

To  write  clearly  one  must  think  clearly.  But  clear 
thinkers  are  not  always  clear  writers.  Composition  is 
an  art,  and  requires  training  and  practice.  It  has  its 
technique  as  truly  as  sculpture  or  music  or  engineering. 
The  elements  of  composition  are  easily  understood, 
since  they  are  merely  common-sense  reduced  to  simple 
rules,  but  constant  practice  is  needed  to  make  them 
useful. 


The  first  requisite  in  composition  is  to  have  thoughts. 
We  cannot  be  expected  to  write  upon  a  subject  unless 
we  know  something  about  it.  The  second  requisite  is 
to  have  a  vocabulary,  —  that  is,  to  be  master  of  a  stock 
of  words  in  which  to  express  such  thoughts  as  one 
may  have. 

Only  one  thing  is  necessary  in  order  to  increase  one's 
vocabulary,  and  that  is  —  attention.  Every  book  that 
we  read  and  every  intelligent  conversation  in  which 
we  engage  may  contribute  something  to  our  stock  of 
available  words. 

A  young  student  is  not  expected  to  have  a  large 
vocabulary,  for  simple  thoughts  are  best  expressed  in 
simple  words ;  and  in  increasing  his  vocabulary  he 
should  take  care  not  to  let  it  outrun  his  ideas.  Above 
all  things,  he  should  know  the  meaning  of  every  word 
that  he  uses,  and  should  know  it  exactly,  not  merely  in 
a  vague  and  shadowy  way.  Here  again  attention,  com- 
bined with  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  will  achieve  the 
end  in  view. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  321 

SECTION   II. 

Study  the  use  aud  meaning  of  the  italicized  words  in 
the  following  selection. 

Use  the  words  in  sentences  of  your  own. 

THE   SOUTH   WIND. 
(From  "  The  King  of  the  Golden  River.") 

It  was  the  most  extraordinary  looking  little  gentleman  he  had 
ever  seen  in  his  life.  He  had  a  very  large  nose,  slightly  brass- 
colored  ;  his  cheeks  were  very  round  and  very  red,  and  might  have 
warranted  a  supposition  that  he  had  been  blowing  a  refractory  fire 
for  the  last  eight-and-forty  hours ;  his  eyes  twinkled  merrily 
through  long  silky  eyelashes,  his  moustaches  curled  twice  round 
like  a  corkscrew  on  each  side  of  his  mouth,  and  his  hair,  of  a  curi- 
ous mixed  pepper-and-salt  color,. descended  far  over  his  shoulders. 
He  was  about  four  feet  six  in  height,  and  wore  a  conical  pointed 
cap  of  nearly  the  same  altitude,  decorated  with  a  black  feather 
some  three  feet  long.  His  doublet  was  prolonged  behind  into 
something  resembling  a  violent  exaggeration  of  what  is  now  termed 
a  "  swallow  tail,"  but  was  much  obscured  by  the  swelling  folds  of 
an  enormous  black,  glossy-looking  cloak,  which  must  have  been 
very  much  too  long  in  calm  weather,  as  the  wind,  whistling  round 
the  old  house,  carried  it  clear  out  from  the  wearer's  shoulders  to 
about  four  times  his  own  length.  —  Ruskin. 

SECTION  III. 

Turn  to  some  page  of  your  reading-book  or  history, 
and  see  how  many  familiar  words  it  contains  which  you 
cannot  "define." 

You  may  have  a  general  idea  of  the  meaning,  but  the 
question  is.  what  do  the  words  mean  exactly  ?     Do  you 


322  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

know  them  by  sight,  or  have  you  a  speaking  acquaint- 
ance with  them?  Can  you  use  them  in  your  own 
compositions  without  fear  of  saying  something  absurd  ? 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Exercises  of  this  kind  may  be  repeated  as  often 
as  time  allows  and  the  needs  of  the  class  require.  They  may  he  distinct 
from  ordinary  reading  lessons  or  lessons  in  literature,  but  their  effect  will 
soon  appear,  both  in  the  pupil's  written  work  and  in  his  understanding  of 
what  he  reads.  When  attention  is  thus  roused,  lessons  in  synonyms  may 
be  used  to  advantage.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  rest  satisfied  with 
definitions,  but  to  require  the  use  of  the  words  in  written  or  spoken  com- 
position. If  it  is  clear  tbat  the  pupil  really  understands  a  word,  and 
can  use  it  correctly,  he  should  not  be  too  much  pressed  for  a  formal 
"  definition." 

SECTION  IV. 
SYNONYMS. 

Our  language  is  rich  in  synonyms,  —  that  is,  in  differ- 
ent words  for  the  same  idea. 

Thus,  angry,  irritated,  vexed,  wrathful,  infuriated,  are 
synonyms. 

We  observe,  however,  that  these  five  words  do  not  all 
convey  the  same  shade  of  meaning,  though  their  sense 
is  in  general  the  same. 

A  knowledge  of  synonyms  and  of  their  differences  is 
of  great  importance  in  the  expression  of  thought. 


Write  down  such  synonyms  as  you  know  for  :  nation, 
liberty,  happy,  proud,  strong,  struggle,  weak,  fear. 

Use  each  synonym  in  a  sentence. 

If  your  sentence  does  not  make  clear  the  exact  mean- 
ing of  the  synonym,  explain  its  meaning  as  distinguished 
from  other  synonyms. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  323 

To  the  Teacher. — This  exercise  maybe  repeated  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  class.  The  dictionary  should  be  freely  used  by  the  pupil, 
sometimes  in  preparing  his  lists  of  synonyms,  at  others  in  explaining  or 
correcting  his  illustrative  sentences.     Thus  variety  may  be  secured. 

It  is  easy  to  overdo  the  work  with  synonyms.  Particular  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  insist  on  hair-splitting  distinctions,  or,  in  general,  on 
distinctions  that  are  more  delicate  than  the  pupil  can  be  expected  to 
appreciate. 

The  following  words  will  give  abundant  practice  in  work  of  this  kind : 
abbreviate,  error,  omit,  destroy,  get,  speech,  combine,  throw,  answer,  care- 
less, cruel,  kind,  trouble,  inquiry,  pain,  pardon,  toil,  disdain,  seldom,  use- 
less, instruction,  energy,  recollect,  saunter,  progress,  confess,  affectionate, 
suppose,  regard,  town,  accident,  purpose,  remain,  return,  puzzled,  mistake, 
follow,  civil,  pacify,  conquer. 

SECTION  V.* 
USE   OF    SYNONYMS. 

Use  the  synonyms  in  the  list  on  page  324  according 
to  the  following  plan  :  — 

1.  Make  a  sentence  containing  the  first  synonym  in 
line  1 .     Thus,  — 

He  gave  a  frank  account  of  his  opinions. 

2.  Substitute  the  second  synonym  (fair)  in  your  sen- 
tence.    Thus,  — 

Pie  gave  a  fair  account  of  his  opinions. 

3.  Consider  the  meaning  of  this  last  sentence,  and 
tell  how  it  differs  from  that  of  the  first.  If  there  is  no 
difference,  say  so. 

4.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  other  synonyms 
in  the  first  line. 

5.  If  any  sentence  does  not  make  sense,  reject  it, 
and  use  the  synonym  in  a  new  sentence.  This  will 
help  you  to  see  the  difference  in  meaning. 

*  This  section  will  furnish  material  for  several  lessons. 


324 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


1. 

frank 

fair 

open 

straightforward 

2. 

bold 

daring 

courageous 

fearless 

a. 

battle 

engagement 

conflict 

combat 

4. 

request 

entreat 

beg 

implore 

5. 

anxiety 

solicitude 

worry 

foreboding 

6. 

amidst 

among 

betwixt 

between 

7. 

falsehood 

deceit 

lie 

untruth 

8. 

fear 

dread 

terror 

horror 

9. 

home 

dwelling 

house 

residence 

10. 

necessary 

indispensable 

essential 

inevitable 

11. 

neglect 

omission 

negligence 

oversight 

12. 

new 

recent 

modern 

novel 

13. 

price 

cost 

value 

expense 

14. 

advance 

forward 

promote 

further 

15. 

put 

place 

set 

station 

16. 

scholar 

pupil 

student 

learner 

17. 

shelter 

protect 

defend 

harbor 

18. 

say 

talk 

tell 

speak 

19. 

crowd 

throng 

multitude 

host 

20. 

common 

customary 

familiar 

habitual 

21. 

virtue 

goodness 

righteousness 

integrity 

22. 

labor 

work 

employment 

business 

23. 

pleasant 

agreeable 

pleasing 

attractive 

24. 

command 

direction 

order 

mandate 

25. 

old 

aged 

ancient 

elderly 

SECTION   VI.* 

ANTONYMS. 

Words  of  opposite  meaning  are  called  antonyms. 
Thus,  weak  and  strong,  crafty  and  simple,  empty  and  full, 
are  antonyms. 

Study  the  pairs  of  antonyms  in  the  following  list. 

*  This  section  will  furnish  material  for  several  lessons. 


lessons  in  composition: 


325 


1. 

courageous 

cowardly 

11. 

plenty 

want 

2. 

friendly 

hostile 

12. 

calm 

storm 

3. 

clever 

stupid 

13. 

beauty 

ugliness 

4. 

rapid 

slow 

14. 

virtue 

vice 

5. 

industrious 

lazy 

15. 

riches 

poverty 

6. 

build 

demolish 

16. 

freeman 

slave 

7. 

create 

annihilate 

17. 

ruler 

subject 

8. 

advance 

r  3treat 

18. 

citizen 

alien 

9. 

generosity 

stinginess 

19. 

highlands 

lowlands 

10. 

frugality 

extravagance 

20. 

soothe 

irritate 

Use  each  of  these  words  in  a  sentence  of  your  own. 
Use  each  pair  of  antonyms  in  a  sentence. 


SECTION   VII.* 


Find  an  antonym  for  each  word  in  the  first  column 
of  the  list  of  synonyms  in  Section  V. 
Use  these  antonyms  as  in  Section  VI. 


SECTION  VIII. 
THE    SENTENCE    AS    A    UNIT. 

Composition,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  process  of  "  put- 
ting together."  In  expressing  our  thoughts  in  orderly 
discourse,  whether  oral  or  written,  we  put  together 
words  to  make  sentences,  and  sentences  to  make  larger 
divisions  of  story,  oration,  essay,  and  so  on.  The 
process  is  continuous  and  identical  in  its  nature,  from 
the  simplest  combination  of  subject  and  predicate,  like 
"  Birds  fly,"  to  a  play  of  Shakspere,  a  novel  of  Scott, 
or  the  most  elaborate  scientific  or  historical  treatise. 

*  This  section  will  furnish  material  for  several  lessons. 


320  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Ill  forming  sentences  we  must  take  care  that  every 
sentence  is  a  unit,  —  that  is,  we  must  not  include  in  a 
single  sentence  different  ideas  that  have  no  obvious 
connection. 

The  Spartans  did  not  care  for  literature. 
The  Spartans  were  stubborn  fighters. 

Each  of  these  sentences  is  a  unit.  The  two  state- 
ments may  be  combined  into :  — 

The  Spartans  despised  literature,  but  they  excelled  in  warfare. 

This  sentence  is  also  a  unit,  for  it  characterizes  the 
Spartans  by  telling  what  they  cared  for  and  what  they 
did  not  care  for.  Contrast  the  case  of  the  two  follow- 
ing sentences :  — 

The  Spartans  did  not  care  for  literature. 
The  Spartans  lived  in  Laconia. 

It  would  not  be  easy  to  combine  these  two  statements 
into  a  single  sentence  without  producing  a  ridiculous 
effect.  The  residence  of  the  Spartans  in  Laconia  and 
their  distaste  for  literature  are  not  connected  ideas. 

The  principle  illustrated  in  what  precedes  is  called 
the  principle  of  unity.  It  runs  through  all  forms  of 
composition. 

SECTION   IX. 

UNITY. 

Study  the  following  pairs  of  sentences  and  see  if 
they  can  be  combined  without  violating  the  principle 
of  unity. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  327 

1.  The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  are  very  barbarous. 

The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  live  principally  on  raw  fish. 

2.  Napoleon  was  a  great  conqueror. 

Napoleon  wore  a  long  riding-coat  at  the  Battle  of  Leipzig. 

3.  Thus  Wallace's  party  grew  stronger  and  stronger. 
Many  of  the  Scottish  nobles  joined  Wallace. 

4.  John  Oxenford  lived  in  Clifton  Terrace. 
His  favorite  author  was  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

5.  The  natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands  were  said  to  be  igno- 

rant of  the  use  of  fire. 
These  natives  were  firm  believers  in  witchcraft. 

6.  Five  or  six  men  were  seated  on  logs  and  stools  round  the 

chimney. 
The  herdsmen  were  eating  their  supper  of  bread  and  cheese. 

7.  King  Charles  I.  was  beheaded. 

The  news  of  the  king's  death  was  received  with  a  thrill 
of  horror. 

8.  At  last  they  found  means  to  carry  their  meal  to  a  mill 

near  Woodford. 
They  had  their  meal  ground  at  this  mill. 

9.  The  scantiness  of  his  purse  was  notorious. 
Goldsmith  was  forced  to  live  in  obscure  lodgings. 

10.  Columbus  landed  in  1492. 

Sebastian  Cabot  sailed  from  Bristol  in  1497  and  pushed 
along  the  coast  of  America  to  the  south  as  far  as  Florida. 

11.  My  copy  of  Shakspere  is  in  ten  volumes. 

The  plays  of  Shakspere  were  very  popular  in  his  own  time. 

See  into  how  many  short  sentences  the  following- 
passage  may  be  cut  up. 

The  dream  of  finding  a  passage  to  Asia  by  a  voyage  round 
the  northern  coast  of  the  American  continent  drew  a  west-coun- 
try seaman,  Martin  Frobisher,  to  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  the 
news  which  he  brought  back  of  the  existence  of  gold  mines  there 
set  adventurers  cruising  among  the  icebergs  of  Baffin's  Bay. 


328  TEE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION  X. 
VARIETY. 

Sameness  (or  monotony)  of  style  is  a  fatal  fault  in 
composition,  for  it  takes  the  life  out  of  the  most  inter- 
esting subject.  Variety,  on  the  other  hand,  stimulates 
attention  and  lends  a  certain  attractiveness  to  the  driest 
material. 

The  free  syntax  of  our  language,  together  with  its 
large  and  diversified  stock  of  words,  makes  variety  an 
easy  merit  in  English  writing.  The  same  idea  may 
often  be  expressed  in  several  different  ways  by  chang- 
ing the  grammatical  construction.  We  have  already 
studied  many  such  "  equivalent  constructions." 

Examples  are :  adjectives,  adjective  phrases,  and  adjective 
clauses  (§§  121-3,  204-7);  adverbs,  adverbial  phrases,  and 
adverbial  clauses  (§§  124-31,  195-200);  nouns  and  noun  clauses 
(§§208-11);  active  and  passive  (§§464-6);  nouns  and  infini- 
tives (§§  448,  533-6);  infinitives  and  clauses  of  purpose  and 
result  (§§  585-9);  infinitive  clauses  (§§  611-17);  clauses  of 
cause,  time,  place,  and  circumstance,  and  the  nominative  absolute 
(§§  492-5).* 

Observe  that  two  "  equivalent  constructions "  often 
differ  in  the  exact  shade  of  thought  or  feeling  that  they 
express,  or,  at  all  events,  in  emphasis. f  Compare  what 
was  said  of  synonyms  in  Section  IV. 

*  This  enumeration  will  serve  as  a  basis  for  several  review  lessons  at 
this  point  if  the  pupil's  memory  needs  refreshing.  The  exercises  attached 
to  the  several  chapters  afford  abundant  material  for  practice  in  connection 
with  such  reviews. 

t  The  teacher  may  prefer  to  take  up  this  whole  subject  in  connection 
with  the  lessons  in  emphasis  (pp.  :«i0-3). 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  329 

SECTION   XI. 

In  the  sentences  on  page  261,  substitute  a  clause  for 
the  nominative  absolute  whenever  this  is  possible. 

In  the  same  sentences,  substitute  a  prepositional 
phrase  whenever  it  can  be  done  without  spoiling  the 
style. 

SECTION   XII. 

See  in  how  many  ways  you  can  change  the  sentences 
on  page  293  without  materially  affecting  the  sense. 

section  xni. 

Study  the  following  sentence  from  Lamb :  — 

Taking  the  dagger  in  his  hand,  Macbeth  softly  stole  in  the 
dark  to  the  chamber  where  Duncan  lay. 

You  observe  that  the  constructions  may  be  varied  in 
a  number  of  ways.     Thus,  — 

(1)  Instead  of  the  present  participle  "  taking,"  we 
might  use  the  perfect  participle  ("  having  taken  "),  or 
a  clause  of  time  ("  when  he  had  taken  "),  or  a  preposi- 
tional phrase  ("  after  taking  "),  or  a  nominative  absolute 
("dagger  in  hand"). 

(2)  instead  of  the  adjective  clause  "  where  Duncan 
lay,"  we  might  use  a  genitive  ("  Duncan's  chamber  "),  or 
an  o/-phrase  ("  the  chamber  of  Duncan  "),  or  an  adjec- 
tive ("the  royal  chamber"). 

Make  the  sentence  over,  in  different  ways,  on  the 
basis  of  these  suggestions,  and  tell  whether  you  think 
it  is  improved  by  the  several  changes. 


330  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


SECTION   XIV. 

Study  the   following  sentences   in   accordance   with 
the  plan  described  in  Section  XIII. 

1.  Being  weary  they  fell  asleep. 

2.  Taking  an  affectionate  leave  of  my  kind  and  interesting 
young  hosts,  I  went  my  way. 

3.  Seeing  a  crowd  of  people  in  the  street,  I  joined  with  them 
to  satisfy  my  curiosity,  and  found  them  all  staring  up  into  the 
air. 

4.  We  set  out  in  the  evening  by  moonlight,  and  travelled 
hard,  the  road  being  very  plain  and  large,  till  we  came  to  Gran- 
tham. 

5.  There  lay  before  me,  extending  completely  across  my  path, 
a  thicket. 

6.  He  often  laid  his  ear  within  two  yards  of  me ;  but  all  in 
vain,  for  we  were  wholly  unintelligible  to  each  other. 

7.  One  begins  to  see  in  this  country  the  first  promises  of  an 
Italian  spring,  clear  unclouded  skies  and  warm  suns,  such  as  are 
not  often  felt  in  England. 

8.  Everard  recollected  the  fiery,  high,  and  unbending  charac- 
ter of  Sir  Henry  Lee,  and  felt,  even  when  his  fingers  were  on  the 
latch,  a  reluctance  to  intrude  himself  upon  the  presence  of  the 
irritable  old  knight. 

9.  Foiled  in  an  attempt  on  North  Carolina  by  the  refusal  of 
his  fellow-general,  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  to  assist  him,  Lord  Corn- 
wallis  fell  back  in  1781  on  Virginia,  and  intrenched  himself  in 
the  lines  of  Yorktown. 

10.  Wild    and    savage    insurrection    quitted    the    woods,    and 
prowled  about  our  streets  in  the  name  of  reform. 

11.  The  swallow,  oft,  beneath  my  thatch 

Shall  twitter  from  her  clay-built  nest ; 
Oft  shall  the  pilgrim  lift  the  latch, 
And  share  my  meal,  a  welcome  guest. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  331 


SECTION   XV. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  substitute  a  parti- 
cipial or  a  prepositional  phrase  for  the  clause  indicating 
time. 

1.  When  I  had  watered  my  horse,  I  turned  him  loose  to  graze. 

2.  I  must  now  relate  what  occurred  to  me  a  few  days  before 
the  ship  sailed. 

3.  It  must  have  been  raining  cats  and  dogs  ever  since  I  had 
been  out. 

4.  After  the  proclamation  had  been  read,  the  crowd  dispersed, 
little  by  little. 

5.  As  he  approached  they  raised  a  rueful  cry. 

6.  I  shall  be  in  town  when  November  comes  in. 

Have  you  improved  or  injured  the  passages,  or  have 
your  changes  made  them  neither  better  nor  worse  ? 


SECTION   XVI. 

An  infinitive  construction  may  often  be  substituted 
for  a  clause,  or  a  clause  for  an  infinitive  construction. 
Thus, — 

1.  He  was  so  frightened  that  he  could  not  speak. 
He  was  too  frightened  to  speak. 

2.  The  board  was  adjusted  so  that  it  covered  the  trapdoor. 
The  board  was  so  adjusted  as  to  cover  the  trapdoor. 

3.  My  purpose  was  that  the  wall  should  be  undermined. 
My  purpose  was  to  undermine  the  wall. 

4.  He  toiled  that  he  might  procure  bread  for  his  children. 
He  toiled  to  procure  bread  for  his  children. 

Make  similar  substitutions  in  the  following  sentences. 


332  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

5.  Mr.  Williams  seems  to  have  lost  the  power  of  acting  intelli- 
gently.    [It  seems  that,  etc.] 

6.  The  rising  waters  seemed  to  cut  off  their  retreat  and  their 
advance. 

7.  I  saw  him  change  color  and  bite  his  lip. 

8.  Even  Cromwell  was  powerless  to  break  the  spirit  which 
now  pervaded  the  soldiers. 

9.  The  emperor  held  frequent  council  to  debate  what  course 
should  be  taken  with  me. 

10.  Five  hundred  men  were  set  at  work  that  the  great  building 
might  be  ready. 

11.  The  queen's  earnest  wish  is  for  you  to  act  the  part  of  a 
mediator. 

12.  I  am  sorry  that  I  must  leave  you  in  this  difficulty. 

13.  The  traveller  was  so  exhausted  that  he  could  not  speak. 

14.  The  river  was  so  high  that  it  flooded  the  city. 

15.  The   colonel    ordered  that  the  forces   should   set  out  at 
daybreak. 

16.  The  crew  sacrificed  themselves  that  the  passengers  might 
be  saved. 

SECTION   XVII. 

CONDENSED    EXPRESSIONS. 

It  is   often   possible   to   condense  a  clause  or  a  long 
phrase  into  a  word  or  two.     Thus,  — 

■ 

1.  i"  have  no  doubt  that  the  confusion  was  great. 
No  doubt  the  confusion  was  great. 

2.  While  this  was  happening,  the  cavalry  had  come  up. 
Meanwhile  the  cavalry  had  come  up. 

3.  They  started  without  a  moment's  delay.     [Instantly.] 

4.  It  is  certain  that  the  report  is  false. 
The  report  is  certainly  false. 

5.  He  was  agitated  and  paced  the  floor. 
He  paced  the  floor  in  agitation. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  333 

Substitute  condensed  expressions  for  the  italicized  por- 
tions of  the  following  sentences. 

6.  She  wondered  how  it  was  that  they  could  both  be  alive. 

7.  Almost  everybody  knows  some  one  thing,  and  is  glad  to 
talk  about  that  one  thing. 

8.  He  uttered  his  words  carefully  and  with  deliberation. 

9.  I  always  read  a  poem  in  the  morning,  before  I  sit  down  to 
breakfast. 

10.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed  on  the  fourth 
day  of  the  month  of  July,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1776. 

11.  He  lay  awake  through  the  long  hours  of  the  night. 

12.  A  farmer  whose  name  teas  Binnock  was  the  first  to  enlist. 

13.  The  president  of  the  company  was  a  man  by  the  name  of 
Johnson. 

14.  He  rose,  and,  when  he  had  mounted  his  horse,  rode  off  at 
a  gallop. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  condensed  phrases 
are  "better  English"  than  the  longer  expressions. 
Both  have  their  place  in  composition.  The  nature  of 
our  subject  and  the  effect  that  we  wish  to  produce 
must  determine  our  choice  of  words. 


Expand  the  italicized  expressions  in  an  appropriate 
way. 

1.  Amazed,  he  stares  around. 

2.  All  the  night  it  was  stormy  and  dark. 

3.  She  held  out  her  hands  in  welcome. 

4.  Meanwhile  the  rain  had  begun  with  fury. 

5.  The  woods  were  soon  burning. 

6.  The  sailor  swam  vigorously. 

7.  This  done,  they  embarked  for  Calais. 


334  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   XVIII. 
THE    PARAGRAPH. 

Read  the  following  passage  and  observe  that  it  is  not 
printed  in  one  mass,  but  is  divided  into  paragraphs. 

THE   ENGLISH   LARK. 

Near  the  gold  mines  of  Australia,  by  a  little  squatter's  house 
that  was  thatched  and  whitewashed  in  English  fashion,  a  group 
of  rough  English  miners  had  come  together  to  listen  in  that 
far-away  country  to  the  singing  of  the  English  lark. 

Like  most  singers,  he  kept  them  waiting  a  bit.  But  at  last, 
just  at  noon,  when  the  mistress  of  the  house  had  warranted  him 
to  sing,  the  little  feathered  exile  began  as  it  were  to  tune  his 
pipes.  The  savage  men  gathered  around  the  cage  that  moment, 
and  amidst  a  dead  stillness  the  bird  uttered  some  very  uncertain 
Chirps,  but  after  a  while  he  seemed  to  revive  his  memories  and 
call  his  ancient  cadences  back  to  him  one  by  one.  And  then  the 
same  sun  that  had  warmed  his  little  heart  at  home  came  glowing 
down  on  him  here,  and  he  gave  music  back  for  it  more  and  more, 
till  at  last,  amidst  breathless  silence  and  glistening  eyes  of  the 
rough  diggers  hanging  on,  his  voice  outburst  in  that  distant  land 
his  English  song. 

Tt  swelled  his  little  throat  and  gushed  from  him  with  thrilling 
force  and  plenty,  and  every  time  he  checked  his  song  to  think  of 
its  theme,  the  green  meadows,  the  quiet,  stealing  streams,  the 
clover  he  first  soared  from,  and  the  spring,  he  sang  so  well,  a 
loud  sigh  from  many  a  rough  bosom,  many  a  wild  and  wicked 
heart,  told  how  tight  the  listeners  had  held  their  breath  to  hear 
him ;  and  when  he  swelled  with  song  again,  and  poured  forth 
with  all  his  soul  the  green  meadows,  the  quiet  brooks,  the  honey 
clover,  and  the  English  spring,  the  rugged  mouths  opened  and  so 
stayed,  and  the  shaggy  lips  trembled,  and  more  than  one  tear 
trickled  from  fierce,  unbridled  hearts  down  bronzed  and  rugged 
cheeks.     Sweet  Home!  —  Charles  Reade. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  335 

Examine  the  paragraphs  in  this  selection.  Yon  will 
find  that  each  paragraph  is  a  unit,  —  that  is,  it  deals  with 
a  particular  thing  or  idea  or  phase  of  the  subject.  It 
would  be  easy  for  you  to  give  a  brief  title  to  each 
paragraph  which  would  indicate  its  contents.  Thus 
the  first  paragraph  may  be  entitled  "  The  Expectant 
Miners  "  ;  the  second,  "  The  Song  of  the  Lark  "  ;  the 
third,  "  Memories  of  Home."  In  other  words,  the  para- 
graphs observe  the  principle  of  unity. 


Every  piece  of  prose  of  any  length  is  divided  into 
sections  called  paragraphs,  each  of  which  relates  to  a 
particular  point  or  phase  of  the  subject. 

A  paragraph  may  consist  of  a  single  sentence ;  but  it 
usually  consists  of  several  sentences. 

A  very  brief  composition,  relating  to  a  single  point, 
and  not  subdivided,  is  also  called  a  paragraph. 

Every  paragraph  should  observe  the  principle  of  unity. 

In  writing  and  printing,  the  first  line  of  every  paragraph  is 
indented,  --that  is,  it  begins  a  little  farthei  to  the  right  than 
the  other  lines. 

The  name  paragraph  comes  from  two  Greek  words  and  means  "  some- 
thing written  at  the  side."  It  was  originally  applied  to  the  mark  H",  which 
was  put  in  the  margin  to  call  attention  to  the  beginning  of  anew  section 
or  division  of  the  writing ;  later  the  name  was  transferred  to  the  section 
itself. 

SECTION   XIX. 

Turn  to  some  piece  of  prose  in  your  reading-book. 
Read  it  paragraph  by  paragraph,  and  try  to  give  the 
subject  of  each  paragraph  in  the  form  of  a  brief  title. 


336  THE  MOTHEB    TONGUE. 

In  this  exercise  you  are  observing  the  unity  of  the 
paragraph.  If  the  paragraph  really  deals  with  a  single 
point,  one  should  be  able  to  mention  that  point. 

Use  the  same  test  in  your  own  writing. 

To  the  Teacher.  — Exercises  of  this  kind  may  be  multiplied  accord- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  pupil.  Passages  from  text-hooks  in  history  and 
from  works  of  English  literature  may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  The 
comparison  of  the  paragraph  with  the  stanza  will  be  found  useful.  But  the 
pupil  should  be  reminded  that  most  stanzas  are  rigidly  fixed  as  to  their 
form,  —  whereas  the  length  and  form  of  the  paragraph  depend  largely  on 
the  purpose  of  the  writer,  —  and  further,  that  the  poet  is  not  bound  to 
observe  unity  in  his  stanza.  The  difference  consists,  of  course,  in  the 
fact  that  the  stanza  is  primarily  a  division  with  respect  to  form,  and  the 
paragraph  a  division  with  respect  to  thought. 


SECTION  XX. 

WRITTEN   CONVERSATION. 

In  reporting  a  conversation,  each  speech,  however 
short,  is  usually  written  or  printed  as  a  single  para- 
graph.    Thus,  — 

A   FURLOUGH. 

The  children  had  been  reading  about  the  war  in  Cuba. 

"  Does  any  one  know  what  a  furlough  is  ?  "  asked  the  teacher. 

"  Yes,"  replied  a  small  boy.     "  A  furlough  is  a  mule." 

The  children  smiled. 

"  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  "  asked  the  teacher. 

"  I  know  it  is,"  answered  the  small  boy.  "  I  have  a  picture 
to  prove  it." 

The  lad  produced  his  picture.  It  was  called  "  Off  on  a  Fur- 
lough "  and  represented  a  soldier  riding  on  a  mule. 

Copy  the  anecdote,  giving  special  attention  to  the 
paragraphs  and  the  punctuation. 


LESSONS   IN   COMPOSITION.  337 

SECTION   XXI. 

Write  a  short  paragraph  about  the  War  with  Spain. 
Take  care  that  your  paragraph  does  not  include  too 
much. 

Criticise  your  own  paragraph  with  regard  to  unity. 

SECTION   XXII. 
THE   PARAGRAPH    AND   THE    STANZA. 

Observe  that  the  paragraph  in  prose  is  very  much 
what  the  stanza  is  in  verse,  though  its  form  and  length 
are  not  fixed  as  in  the  case  of  the  stanza. 


Find  in  your  reading-book  some  poem  that  is  com- 
posed of  separate  stanzas. 

Examine  each  stanza  as  you  examined  the  paragraphs 
in  Section  XVIII,  and  try  to  give  a  brief  title  to  each. 

SECTION   XXIII. 

Tell  the  story  of  some  poem  with  which  you  are 
familiar. 

Write  the  story  carefully,  point  by  point,  taking  care 
that  each  paragraph  deals  with  one  particular  point  or 
incident  in  the  narrative. 

Compare  your  prose  story  with  the  poem  and  see  if 
the  paragraphs  correspond  to  the  stanzas  in  number  and 
contents. 

If  they  do  not,  tell  why. 


338  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   XXIV. 

Write  two  or  three  paragraphs  about  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects  *  :  — 

Some  pet  animal ;  a  walk ;  a  visit  to  the  city ;  a 
visit  to  the  country ;  the  Romans  ;  the  North  American 
Indians ;  war  and  peace ;  football  ;  tennis  ;  boating  ; 
swimming  ;  rivers ;  the  sea ;  a  mountain. 

SECTION   XXV. 

You  are  called  upon  to  describe  your  town  or  city  to 
a  stranger.     What  points  ought  you  to  mention  ? 

Write  down  these  points  as  they  occur  to  you,  giving 
a  sentence  to  each. 

Arrange  the  points  in  an  orderly  manner,  beginning 
with  the  name  and  situation  of  your  town. 

Write  a  single  paragraph  on  the  first  of  these  heads ; 
on  the  second  ;    on  the  third. 

SECTION   XXVI. 

Observe  that  paragraphs  are  not  formed  by  cutting 
up  continuous  discourse  into  mechanical  lengths,  any 
more  than  stanzas  are  made  by  cutting  up  poetry. 

On  the  contrary,  continuous  discourse  grows  by  add- 
ing paragraph  to  paragraph,  as  our  thoughts  pass  from 
point  to  point  of  the  subject  in  orderly  succession. 

Copy  carefully  the  following  extract  from  Ruskin.f 

*  The  teacher  may  use  this  material  for  several  lessons. 

f  In  this  exercise  the  pupil  should  he  led  to  observe  the  growth  of  the 
author's  thought  and  the  correspondence  between  the  paragraphs  and  the 
development  of  the  meaning. 


LESSONS   IN   COMPOSITION.  339 

THE    SOCIETY   OF   GOOD   BOOKS. 

We  cannot  know  whom  we  would  ;  and  those  whom  we  know, 
we  cannot  have  at  our  side  when  we  most  need  them.  Yet  there 
is  a  society  continually  open  to  us,  of  people  who  will  talk  to  us 
as  long  as  we  like,  —  talk  to  us  in  the  best  words  they  can  choose, 
and  of  the  things  nearest  their  hearts.  And  this  society,  because 
it  is  so  numerous  and  so  gentle,  and  can  be  kept  waiting  around 
us  all  daylong, — kings  and  statesmen  lingering  patiently,  not 
to  grant  audience,  but  to  gain  it !  —  in  those  plainly  furnished 
and  narrow  anterooms,  our  bookcase  shelves,  —  we  make  no 
account  of  that  company, — perhaps  never  listen  to  a  word  they 
would  say,  all  day  long ! 

Suppose  you  could  be  put  behind  a  screen,  should  you  not 
be  glad  to  listen  to  their  words,  though  you  were  forbidden  to 
advance  beyond  the  screen?  And  when  the  screen  is  only  a 
little  less,  folded  in  two  instead  of  four,  and  you  can  be  hidden 
behind  the  cover  of  the  two  boards  that  bind  a  book,  and  listen 
all  day  long,  not  to  the  casual  talk,  but  to  the  studied,  determined, 
chosen  addresses  of  the  wisest  of  men,  —  this  station  of  audience, 
and  honorable  privy  council,  you  despise ! 

This  eternal  court  is  always  open  to  you,  with  its  society 
wide  as  the  world,  multitudinous  as  its  days,  the  chosen,  and  the 
mighty,  of  every  place  and  time.  Into  that  you  may  enter 
always ;  in  that  you  may  take  fellowship  and  rank  according  to 
your  wish;  from  that,  once  entered  into  it,  you  can  never  be  an 
outcast  but  by  your  own  fault. 

It  is  open  to  labor  and  to  merit,  but  to  nothing  else.  No 
wealth  will  bribe,  no  name  overawe,  no  artifice  deceive,  the 
guardian  of  those  Elysian  gates.  In  the  deep  sense,  no  vile  or 
vulgar  person  ever  enters  there. 

"  Do  you  deserve  to  enter  ?  Pass.  Do  you  ask  to  be  the  com- 
panion of  nobles?  .Make  yourself  noble,  and  you  shall  be.  Do 
you  long  for  the  conversation  of  the  wise?  Learn  to  understand 
it,  and  you  shall  hear  it.  But  on  other  terms  ?  —  no.  If  you 
will  not  rise  to  us,  we  cannot  stoop  to  you." 


340  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   XXVII. 

Write  in  your  own  words  the  substance  of  the  extract 
that  you  copied  in  Section  XXVI. 

When  you  have  written  your  version,  see  if  you  have 
divided  it  into  paragraphs  properly. 

If  the  paragraphs  are  correct,  tell  why  they  are  cor- 
rect.    If  they  are  incorrect,  make  them  right. 

SECTION   XXVIII. 

Write  an  account  of  a  real  or  imaginary  excursion  to 
some  interesting  place. 

Let  your  story  consist  of  several  paragraphs :  (1)  the 
object  of  the  excursion,  (2)  your  party,  (3)  your  journey, 
(4)  the  place,  (5)  your  return. 

SECTION   XXIX. 

Examine  the  sentences  in  two  paragraphs  of  the  com- 
position in  Section  XXVIII  and  tell  whether  they  are 
units. 

If  any  of  the  sentences  do  not  observe  the  principle 
of  unity,  see  if  you  can  correct  them. 

SECTION   XXX. 

Examine  the  composition  of  some  other  member  of  the 
class  and  tell  whether  his  paragraphs  are  units. 

SECTION   XXXI. 

Describe  the  appearance  and  habits  of  some  animal. 
Your  description  will  contain  at  least  two  paragraphs. 
What  will  be  the  subject  of  the  first  ?  of  the  second  ? 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  341 

SECTION   XXXII. 

Make  notes  for  a  composition  of  three  or  four  para- 
graphs about  England. 

Exchange  your  notes  with  your  neighbor. 
Write  the  paragraphs  suggested  by  his  notes. 

SECTION   XXXIII. 

Your  study  of  Ruskin  (pp.  338-9)  has  shown  you  that 
the  arrangement  of  the  paragraphs  in  a  composition  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance.     The  principle  is  simple  :  — 

The  succession  of  paragraphs  should  agree  with  the 
natural  order  of  the  thought. 

This  same  principle  applies  to  the  arrangement  of 
sentences  within  the  paragraph. 

Study  the  first  paragraph  on  page  339. 

What  thought  does  it  express  ?  Of  how  many  sen- 
tences does  it  consist?  What  is  the  thought  contained 
in  each?  Does  the  arrangement  of  the  sentences  bring- 
out  these  thoughts  in  a  natural  order  ? 

Study  the  other  paragraphs  in  the  same  way. 

You  have  now  arrived  at  three  important  prin- 
ciples :  — 

i.   Every  sentence  should  be  a  unit. 

2.  Every  paragraph  should  also  be  a  unit.  The  sentences  in 
a  paragraph  should  follow  the  order  of  thought. 

3.  The  paragraphs  in  a  composition  should  also  follow  the 
order  of  thought. 

Try  to  observe  these  principles  in  everything  that 
you  write.* 

*  The  study  indicated  in  this  section  should  be  extended  to  other  short 
pieces  of  prose  in  the  pupil's  reading-book,  history,  and  geography. 


342  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   XXXIV. 

Write  ten  sentences  concerning  some  poet  with  whose 
writings  you  are  familiar. 

Combine  some  of  these  sentences  into  a  paragraph, 
taking  care  not  to  violate  the  principle  of  unity. 

Note  that  in  combining  the  sentences  you  must  change 
the  form  of  some  of  them  (perhaps  of  all),  in  order  that 
your  paragraph  may  not  seem  rough  and  disjointed. 

SECTION   XXXV. 

- 

Write  a  brief  account  of  the  life  of  some  historical 
character  of  whom  you  have  read. 

Let  your  sketch  consist  of  a  number  of  paragraphs 
each  of  which  relates  to  some  particular  point  in  the 
person's  life. 

SECTION   XXXVI. 

NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION. 

We  are  frequently  called  upon  to  describe  what  we  have 
seen  or  to  tell  what  we  have  heard.  Description  is  one 
phase  of  composition.  Narration,  or  telling,  is  an  equally 
important  phase.  A  description  should  be  orderly,  com- 
plete, and  clear.  A  narrative  should  be  orderly,  direct, 
clear,  and  interesting.  We  may  describe  a  scene  as  we 
see  it,  or  tell  a  story  as  it  appears  to  us  in  our  own 
individual  fashion  or  style,  but  we  should  maintain  the 
qualities  which  make  description  and  narration  effective 
and  pleasing. 

Read  the  following  description  carefully,  observing 
the  sentences  and  paragraphs. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  343 

MY   AUNT   AND   MR.    DICK. 
(From  "  David  Copperfield.") 

My  aunt  was  a  tall,  hard-featm-ed  lady,  but  by  no  means  ill- 
looking.  There  was  an  inflexibility  in  her  face,  in  her  voice, 
in  her  gait  and  carriage,  amply  sufficient  to  account  for  the  effect 
she  had  made  upon  a  gentle  creature  like  my  mother  ;  but  her 
features  were  rather  handsome  than  otherwise,  though  unbending 
and  austere.  I  particularly  noticed  that  she  had  a  very  quick, 
bright  eye.  Her  hair,  which  was  gray,  was  arranged  in  two  plain 
divisions,  under  what  I  believe  would  be  called  a  mob-cap ;  I 
mean  a  cap,  much  more  common  then  than  now,  with  side-pieces 
fastening  under  the  chin.  Her  dress  was  of  a  lavender  color,  and 
perfectly  neat ;  but  scantily  made,  as  if  she  desired  to  be  as  little 
encumbered  as  possible.  I  remember  that  I  thought  it,  in  form, 
more  like  a  riding-habit  with  the  superfluous  skirt  cut  off,  than 
anything  else.  She  wore  at  her  side  a  gentleman's  gold  watch, 
if  I  might  judge  from  its  size  and  make,  with  an  appropriate 
chain  and  seals ;  she  had  some  linen  at  her  throat  not  unlike  a 
shirt-collar,  and  things  at  her  wrists  like  little  shirt-wristbands. 

Mr.  Dick,  as  I  have  already  said,  was  gray-headed  and  florid  : 
I  should  have  said  all  about  him,  in  saying  so,  had  not  his  head 
been  curiously  bowed  —  not  by  age  ;  it  reminded  me  of  one  of 
Mr.  Creakle's  boys'  heads  after  a  beating  —  and  his  gray  eyes 
prominent  and  large,  with  a  strange  kind  of  watery  brightness  in 
them  that  made  me,  in  combination  with  his  vacant  manner,  his 
submission  to  my  aunt,  and  his  childish  delight  when  she  praised 
him,  suspect  him  of  being  a  little  mad ;  though,  if  he  were  mad, 
how  he  came  to  be  there,  puzzled  me  extremely.  He  was  dressed 
like  any  other  ordinary  gentleman,  in  a  loose  gray  morning  coat 
and  waistcoat,  and  white  trousers  ;  and  had  his  watch  in  his  fob, 
and  his  money  in  his  pockets ;  which  he  rattled  as  if  he  were 
very  proud  of  it.  — Dickens. 

Describe  Mr.  Dick  in  your  own  words. 


344  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION  XXXVII. 
COMPARISON". 

It  is  sometimes  easier  for  the  young  student  to  com- 
pare two  objects  than  to  describe  either  of  them  alone. 
Practice  in  comparison  will  help  you  to  observe  and  to 
describe. 

Study  the  objects,  etc.,  mentioned  below  and  be  ready 
to  make  careful  oral  or  written  comparisons.* 

In  making  your  comparison,  note  the  different  points  in  which 
the  objects  may  be  compared.  In  No.  1,  for  example,  such 
points  are : — 

1.  Appearance:  color,  form,  size,  odor. 

2.  Structure  :  skin,  pulp,  seeds,  seed  cells. 

3.  Sources  from  which  the  fruit  is  obtained. 

1.  An  apple  and  an  orange. 

2.  The  tomato  and  the  grape. 

3.  The  lily  and  the  violet. 

4.  An  English  sparrow  and  a  crow. 

5.  The  canary  and  the  parrot. 

6.  A  rope  and  a  chain. 

7.  Iron  and  gold. 

8.  Night  and  day. 

9.  A  holiday  and  a  school  day. 

10.  The  automobile  and  the  horse. 

11.  A  tugboat  and  an  ocean  steamer. 

12.  An  express  train  and  a  freight  train. 

13.  May  and  October. 

14.  Washington  and  Lincoln. 

15.  Courage  and  cowardice. 

16.  Colonial  life  in  New  York  and  in  Virginia. 

*  Each  of  these  exercises  will  serve  for  a  single  lesson. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  345 

SECTIONS   XXXVIII-L. 

ORAL   COMPOSITION. 

Prepare  to  talk  for  two  minutes  upon  the  following 
subjects.  Your  preparation  may  consist  in  observing  the 
thing  which  you  are  to  describe,  in  reading  about  it,  or 
in  talking  about  it  with  people  who  know  more  than 
you  do.  Make  notes  of  what  you  see,  hear,  and  read, 
and  be  ready  to  talk  clearly  in  the  order  presented  in  the 
outline. 

38.  Describe  the  post-office  in  your  town. 

1 .  General  appearance  —  situation,  size,  material,  style 
of  architecture. 

2.  Interior  —  equipment,  employees. 

3.  Describe  the  arrival  and  departure  of  the  mails. 

39.  How  a  bridge  is  made. 

1.  Where. 

2.  Of  what. 

3.  How. 

40.  A  day's  sport. 

1.  What  you  planned  to  do. 

2.  What  you  did. 

41.  How  a  highway  is  built. 

1.  How  the  land  is  secured  and  paid  for. 

2.  How  the  road  is  laid  out. 

3.  How  the  roadway  is  cleared. 

4.  How  the  road  is  made. 


346  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

42.  Uses  of  glass.  Name  common  things  in  which  glass  is 
used,  stating  at  the  same  time  what  qualities  in  the  glass  make 
it  useful  for  the  purpose  named. 

43.  How  many  people  worked  to  prepare  your  breakfast? 

1.  Trace  each  article  of  food  back  to  its  source  and  think 
of  the  labor  involved  in  making  it  ready  for  you. 

2.  What  people  were  engaged  in  this  labor? 

3.  Compare  the  preparation  of  your  breakfast  with  that 
of  an  Indian's  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago. 

44.  Describe  some  favorite  book. 

1.  Tell  its  name. 

2.  Tell  what  you  know  of  its  author. 

3.  Briefly  outline  the  story  of  the  book. 

45.  Describe  some  picture  which  you  have  seen  and  enjoyed. 

46.  In  England  boys  play  cricket.  In  the  United  States  they 
play  baseball.  Describe  the  game  of  baseball  so  that  your  English 
cousin  will  understand  how  you  play  the  game. 

47.  Describe  some  house  in  your  neighborhood.  Write  about 
its  situation ;  its  general  appearance ;  the  detailed  features  which 
make  it  pleasing  or  remarkable.  Add  any  other  items  which 
seem  interesting  to  you. 

48.  Describe  a  coniiry  road  or  a  city  street  with  which  you 
are  familiar. 

49.  Visit  a  blacksmith's  shop  and  write  a  description  of  the 
place  and  of  the  work  which  is  done  there. 

50.  Describe  some  character  in  history  so  that  your  class- 
mates will  be  able  to  guess  the  name  of  the  character  from  your 
description. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  347 

SECTION   LI. 
VARIETY    AND    SMOOTHNESS. 
Read  the  following  description  aloud. 

EVENING   AT   THE    DOCTOR'S. 


The  clock  of  St.  George's  had  struck  five.  Mrs.  Dove  had  just 
poured  out  the  Doctor's  seventh  cup  of  tea.  The  Doctor  was 
sitting  in  his  armchair.  Sir  Thomas  was  purring  upon  the 
Doctor's  knees.  Pompey  stood  looking  up  to  Mrs.  Dove.  He 
wagged  his  tail.  Sometimes  he  whined  with  a  short  note  of  impa- 
tience. Sometimes  he  gently  put  his  paw  against  Mrs.  Dove's 
apron.  This  was  to  remind  her  that  he  wished  for  another  bit 
of  bread  and  butter.  Barnaby  was  gone  to  the  farm.  Nobs  was 
in  the  stable. 

You  observe  that  this  passage  is  grammatical  and 
written  in  good  pure  English.  It  is  so  vivid  that, 
although  you  may  know  nothing  of  the  story,  you  can- 
not fail  to  understand  the  situation.  You  can  have  no 
doubt  that  the  Doctor  lived  near  St.  George's  Church 
and  that  his  name  was  Dove.  It  is  equally  clear  that 
"  Sir  Thomas  "  was  the  Doctor's  cat,  "  Pompey  "  his 
dog,  "Barnaby"  his  servant,  and  "Nobs"  his  horse. 

Yet  the  passage  is  not  quite  agreeable  to  read.  It  is 
chopped  up  into  a  number  of  short  sentences  of  about 
the  same  length,  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  enable  you 
to  pass  easily  from  one  to  another.  To  read  a  whole 
book  written  in  this  style,  or  even  a  dozen  pages,  would 
be  pretty  hard  work. 

Now  read  the  same  passage  in  the  form  in  which  it  was 
actually  composed  by  the  author,  Robert  Southey. 


348  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

The  clock  of  St.  George's  had  struck  five.  Mrs.  Dove  had  just 
poured  out  the  Doctor's  seventh  cup  of  tea.  The  Doctor  was 
sitting  in  his  armchair.  Sir  Thomas  was  purring  upon  his  knees ; 
and  Pompey  stood  looking  up  to  his  mistress,  wagging  his  tail, 
sometimes  whining  with  a  short  note  of  impatience,  and  some- 
times gently  putting  his  paw  against  her  apron  to  remind  her 
that  he  wished  for  another  bit  of  bread  and  butter.  Barnaby 
was  gone  to  the  farm ;  and  Nobs  was  in  the  stable. 

This  is  something  quite  different.  The  description 
is  no  clearer  than  it  was  before,  but  the  effect  is  much 
better. 

Compare  the  two  versions,  and  try  to  discover  wherein 
the  improvement  lies.  If  you  succeed,  you  will  have 
learned  a  valuable  lesson  in  variety  and  smoothness 
of  style.* 

SECTION  LII. 

Study  "The  English  Lark"  (p.  334)  and  observe 
the  variety  in  the  length  of  the  sentences  and  in  their 
structure. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Several  exercises  of  this  nature  may  follow,  based 
on  descriptive  and  narrative  passages  in  the  pupil's  reading-book  or  his- 
tory. The  principle  involved  should  also  be  illustrated  in  the  teacher's 
criticism  of  the  pupil's  own  compositions. 


SECTION  LIII. 

Review  Sections  XI-XVII,  observing  how  they 
illustrate  the  principle  of  variety. 

*  The  teacher  may  properly  give  the  pupils  a  hint  of  the  principle  of 
sentence-structure  involved  in  this  problem,  if  they  seem  to  be  quite  at 
a  loss. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  349 

SECTION   LIV. 

VARIETY   IN   DESCRIPTION. 

The  following  passages  illustrate  the  scope  of  variety 
in  descriptive  writing. 

1.  The  lofty  houses ;  the  stately,  though  narrow  and  gloomy, 
streets,  the  splendid  display  of  the  richest  goods  and  most  gor- 
geous armor  in  the  warehouses  and  shops  around ;  the  walks 
crowded  by  busy  citizens  of  every  description,  passing  and  repass- 
ing with  faces  of  careful  importance  or  eager  bustle ;  the  huge 
wains,  which  transported  to  and  fro  the  subject  of  export  and 
import,  the  former  consisting  of  broadcloths  and  serge,  arms  of 
all  kinds,  nails  and  iron-work,  while  the  latter  comprehended 
every  article  of  use  or  luxury  intended  either  for  the  consumption 
of  an  opulent  city  or  received  in  barter  and  destined  to  be  trans- 
ported elsewhere  —  all  these  objects  combined  to  form  an  engross- 
ing picture  of  wealth,  bustle,  and  splendor,  to  which  Quentin  had 
been  hitherto  a  stranger.  —  Scott. 

2.  Black  night  lay  over  the  city,  and  silence ;  the  river  flowed 
unseen  through  the  darkness ;  but  a  thousand  golden  points  of  fire 
mapped  out  the  lines  of  the  Embankment  and  the  long  curves  of 
the  distant  bridges.  The  infrequent  sounds  that  could  be  heard 
were  strangely  distinct,  even  when  they  were  faint  and  remote. 
There  was  a  slight  rustling  of  wind  in  the  trees  below  the 
window.  —  William  Black. 

In  the  first  passage  an  enumeration  of  different  objects 
is  so  managed,  in  the  compass  of  one  long  sentence,  as 
to  convey  a  vivid  impression  of  prosperous  activity. 

In  the  second  passage  there  are  three  sentences  of 
different  length,  skillfully  varied  in  their  structure,  and 
combining  to  produce  a  wonderful  effect  of  night  and 
stillness, 


350  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   LV. 

We  have  already  studied  variety  in  sentences  (Sections 
X-XVII)  *  and  have  seen  that  different  forms  (simple 
or  complex)  produce  very  different  effects. 

We  may  observe  similar  differences  in  the  compara- 
tive effectiveness  of  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative, 
and  exclamatory  sentences. 

Study  the  exercise  on  page  32.  No.  5  (interrogative)  is  more 
effective  than  if  it  were  a  declarative  sentence.  In  Nos.  9  and 
10  the  imperative  enlivens  the  passage.  No.  12  would  be  less 
powerful  if  it  were  "You  may  rest,"  etc.  In  Xos.  13,  14,  20, 
note  the  effectiveness  of  the  exclamatory  form. 

Change  the  following  sentences  in  form,  and  see 
whether  each  gains  or  loses  in  effectiveness. 

1.  What  a  frightful  road  this  is  for  me  to  travel  ! 

2.  How  quick  the  change  from  joy  to  woe ! 
How  checker'd  is  our  lot  below ! 

3.  Will  you  be  patient  ?     Will  you  stay  awhile ? 

4.  What  a  dignity  there  is  in  the  Roman  language  ! 

5.  Will  you  forgive  me  if  I  have  pained  you? 

6.  Where  is  the  packet?     Why  should  you  lose  a  moment? 

7.  Was  there  ever  anything  so  delightful? 

8.  And  yet  what  harmony  was  in  him  !     What  music  even 
in  his  discords ! 

9.  How  bright  and  happy  this  world  ought  to  be  ! 

10.  When  others  praise  him,  do  I  blame  ? 

11.  The  songs  of  spring  have  departed. 

12.  "  Luckless  man  that  I  am  !  "  said  the  notary. 

13.  Ah  !  well-a-day  !   what  evil  looks 
Had  I  from  old  and  young ! 

14.  ••  How  T  should  like  to  see  that  !  "  said  Alice. 

*  These  sections  may  now  be  reviewed  in  whole  or  in  part. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION  351 

SECTION   LVI. 

Commit  this  description  to  memory.     Give  an  oral 
account  of  its  contents. 

A   HAPPY   LIFE. 

How  happy  is  he  born  and  taught 

That  serveth  not  another's  will; 
Whose  armor  is  his  honest  thought, 

And  simple  truth  his  utmost  skill  ! 

Whose  passions  not  his  masters  are ; 

Whose  scul  is  still  prepared  for  death  — 
Untied  unto  the  world  by  care 

Of  public  fame  or  private  breath ; 

Who  envies  none  that. chance  doth  raise, 

Nor  vice ;   hath  never  understood 
How  deepest  wounds  are  given  by  praise, 

Nor  rules  of  state,  but  rules  of  good ; 

Who  hath  his  life  from  rumors  freed ; 

Whose  conscience  is  his  strong  retreat ; 
Whose  state  can  neither  flatterers  feed, 

Nor  ruin  make  oppressors  great ; 

Who  God  doth  late  and  early  pray 
More  of  his  grace  than  gifts  to  lend. 

And  entertains  the  harmless  day 
With  a  religious  book  or  friend. 

This  man  is  freed  from  servile  bands 

Of  hope  to  rise  or  fear  to  fall : 
Lord  of  himself,  though  not  of  lands. 

And,  having  nothing,  yet  hath   all. 

Sir  Henry   Wotton. 


352  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION  LVII. 

Study  the  following  description  ;  then  try  to  rewrite 
it  from  memory. 

Compare  your  description  with  the  original. 

SUNSET. 
(From  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake.") 

The  western  waves  of  ebbing  day 
Roll'd  o'er  the  glen  their  level  way  ; 
Each  purple  peak,  each  flinty  spire, 
Was  bathed  in  floods  of  living  fire. 
But  not  a  setting  beam  could  glow 
Within  the  dark  ravines  below, 
Where  twined  the  path  in  shadow  hid, 
Round  many  a  rocky  pyramid, 
Shooting  abruptly  from  the  dell 
Its  thunder-splinter'd  pinnacle. 

Aloft,  the  ash  and  warrior  oak 

Cast  anchor  in  the  rifted  rock ; 

And,  higher  yet,  the  pine  tree  hung 

His  shatter'd  trunk,  and  frequent  flung, 

Where  seem'd  the  cliffs  to  meet  on  high, 

His  boughs  athwart  the  narrow'd  sky. 

Highest  of  all,  where  white  peaks  glanced, 

Where  glist'ning  streamers  waved  and  danced, 

The  wanderer's  eye  could  barely  view 

The  summer  heaven's  delicious  blue ; 

So  wondrous  wild,  the  whole  might  seem 

The  scenery  of  a  fairy  dream. 

Scott. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Further  study  of  this  kind  should  he  encouraged. 
The  pupils  may  he  directed  to  suitahle  passages  in  their  reading-books  or 
advised  to  hring  to  school  similar  descriptions  which  they  may  find  at 
home. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  353 

SECTION  LVIII. 

Study  the  following  narrative. 

CONSCIENCE. 

When  a  little  boy  in  my  fourth  year,  one  fine  day  in  spring 
my  father  led  me  by  the  hand  to  a  distant  part  of  the  farm,  — 
but  soon  sent  me  home  alone. 

On  the  way  I  had  to  pass  a  little  "  pond-hole  "  then  spreading 
its  waters  wide.  A  rhodora  in  full  bloom  —  a  rare  flower  in  my 
neighborhood  —  attracted  my  attention  and  drew  me  to  the  spot. 

I  saw  a  little  spotted  tortoise  sunning  himself  in  the  shallow 
water  at  the  foot  of  the  flaming  shrub.  I  lifted  the  stick  I  had 
in  my  hand,  to  strike  the  harmless  turtle ;  for,  though  I  had 
never  killed  any  creature,  I  had  seen  other  boys  destroy  birds, 
squirrels,  and  the  like,  out  of  sport,  and  I  felt  a  disposition  to 
follow  their  example. 

But  all  at  once  something  checked  my  little  arm,  and  a  voice 
within  me  said,  clear  and  loud,  "  It  is  wrong  !  " 

I  held  my  uplifted  stick  in  wonder  at  the  new  emotion,  —  the 
consciousness  of  an  inward  check  upon  my  actions,  — till  the 
tortoise  and  rhodora  both  vanished  from  my  sight. 

I  hastened  home  and  told  the  tale  to  my  mother,  asking  what 
it  was  that  told  me  it  was  wrong.  She  wiped  a  tear  from  her 
eye  and,  taking  me  in  her  arms,  said,  "  Some  men  call  it  con- 
science, but  I  prefer  to  call  it  the  voice  of  God  in  the  soul  of 
man. 

"  If  you  listen  to  it,  and  obey  it,  then  it  will  speak  clearer 
and  clearer,  and  always  guide  you  right.  But  if  you  turn  a  deaf 
ear  and  disobey  it,  it  will  fade  out  little  by  little,  and  leave  you 
all  in  the  dark  and  without  a  guide.  Your  life  depends  upon 
heeding  this  little  voice." 

I  went  off  to  wonder  and  to  think  it  over  in  my  poor  childish 
way.  But  I  am  sure  no  other  event  in  my  life  has  made  so  deep 
and  lasting  an  impression  on  me.  —  Parker. 


354  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


SECTION   LIX. 

Study  the  following  narrative ;  then  try  to  rewrite  it 
from  memory. 

Compare  your  narrative  with  the  original. 

THE    WHISTLE. 

When  I  was  a  child  of  seven  years  old,  my  friends,  on  a  holi- 
day, filled  my  pocket  with  coppers.  I  went  directly  to  a  shop 
where  they  sold  toys  for  children,  and,  being  charmed  with  the 
sound  of  a  whistle  that  I  met  by  the  way  in  the  hands  of  another 
boy,  I  voluntarily  offered  and  gave  all  my  money  for  one.  I  then 
came  home,  and  went  whistling  all  over  the  house,  much  pleased 
with  my  whistle,  but  disturbing  all  the  family.   < 

My  brothers  and  sisters  and  cousins,  understanding  the  bar- 
gain I  had  made,  told  me  I  had  given  four  times  as  much  for  it 
as  it  was  worth  ;  put  me  in  mind  what  good  things  I  might  have 
bought  with  the  rest  of  the  money ;  and  laughed  at  me  so  much 
for  my  folly  that  I  cried  with  vexation  ;  and  the  reflection  gave 
me  more  chagrin  than  the  whistle  gave  me  pleasure. 

This,  however,  was  afterwards  of  use  to  me,  the  impression 
continuing  in  my  mind  ;  so  that  often,  when  I  was  tempted  to 
buy  some  unnecessary  thing,  I  said  to  myself,  "  Don't  give  too 
much  for  the  whistle  !  "  and  I  saved  my  money. 

As  I  grew  up,  came  into  the  world,  and  observed  the  actions 
of  men,  I  thought  I  met  with  many,  very  many,  who  "  gave  too 
much  for  the  whistle."  —  Franklin. 

Observe  the  paragraphs. 

Give  an  appropriate  title  to  each  (as  in  Section 
XVIII). 

Study  each  paragraph  with  reference  to  unity  and 
variety. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  355 

SECTION   LX. 

THE   INTRODUCTION    IN   NARRATIVES. 

A  story  may  begin  with  an  introductory  paragraph 
naming  and  describing  the  characters,  telling  where  the 
scene  is  laid,  or  giving  some  other  information  which 
the  reader  needs. 

In  "The  English  Lark"  (p.  341),  for  example,  the  first 
paragraph  describes  the  scene  and  tells  the  occasion  of  the 
miners'  meeting. 

In  Longfellow's  •'  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,"  *  the  introduction 
consists  of  two  stanzas.  The  first  informs  us  that  the  story  con- 
cerns a  schooner  named  "  Hesperus,"  and  adds  that  the  skipper 
had  taken  his  daughter  with  him  on  the  voyage ;  the  second 
describes  the  daughter.  The  tale  of  the  wreck  begins  with  the 
third  stanza. 

Study  the  following  poems  with  reference  to  the 
introduction :  — 

"  Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  by  Longfellow. 

"  In  School  Days,"  by  Whittier. 

"  Lucy  Gray,"  by  Wordsworth. 

"The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,"  by  Browning. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Several  other  poems  and  prose  narratives  with 
which  the  pupils  are  already  acquainted  should  now  be  discussed  by 
the  teacher  and  the  class,  with  reference  to  the  length  and  the  contents  of 
the  introduction,  as  well  as  its  function  in  the  story.  . 

The  pupil  should  observe  that  the  introduction  must  not  be  so  long  as 
to  dwarf  the  composition  itself,  and  that  it  need  not  include  details  that 
will  inevitably  suggest  themselves  to  the  reader  as  he  proceeds. 

*  If  the  poem  is  unfamiliar  to  the  pupils,  they  should  read  it  in  the 
class-room  as  an  introduction  to  this  lesson. 


356  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   LXI. 
THE    INTRODUCTION   IN    DESCRIPTIONS. 

In  describing  an  object  or  a  scene,  an  introductory 
paragraph  may  be  needed  to  tell  the  reader  what  it  is 
that  you  mean  to  describe,  or  to  give  him  some  infor- 
mation about  it  that  does  not  properly  belong  to  the 
description  itself. 

Thus,  in  describing  your  own  city  or  town  to  a  stranger 
(p.  338),  you  would  naturally  begin  by  telling  him  the 
name  and  situation  of  the  town.  If  it  is  a  small  place, 
you  might  tell  why  you  think  of  describing  it  at  all,  — 
because  it  is  beautiful,  perhaps,  or  important  historically, 
or  because  you  have  been  asked  about  it.  The  purpose 
of  the  description  and  the  other  circumstances  must 
determine  these  details. 


Write  such  an  introductory  paragraph  as  would  be 
appropriate  in  describing  a  football  game ;  a  school 
exhibition ;  an  election  ;  a  sleigh-ride  ;  a  piece  of  woods.* 


The  length  and  character  of  the  introduction  will  of 
course  vary  considerably.  If  the  object  to  be  described 
is  well  known,  no  introduction  may  be  needed,  or  the 
first  sentence  of  the  opening  paragraph  may  suffice. 

Prosiness  and  excessive  formality  should  be  avoided. 
Proportion  must  also  be  kept  in  mind.  Young  writers 
sometimes  spend  more  time  and  ink  in  introducing  a 
subject  than  in  discussing  it. 

*  Each  of  these  topics  may  be  used  for  a  single  exercise.  Section  LX 
also  contains  material  for  several  lessons. 


LESSONS   IN   COMPOSITION.  357 

SECTION   LXII. 
INTRODUCTION   OMITTED. 

A  narrative  often  begins,  so  to  speak,  in  the  middle. 
The  first  sentences  may  introduce  us  to  the  characters 
in  action  or  in  the  midst  of  an  exciting  conversation. 

In  such  cases  the  introductory  matter  is  given  later, 
when  the  opening  scene  has  been  concluded. 

Thus,  in  Shakspere's  "  Julius  Csesar,"  the  first  scene  shows  us 
the  Roman  workmen  making  riotous  holiday,  and  the  magistrates 
rebuking  them.  It  is  not  until  the  second  scene  that  we  learn 
the  real  subject  of  the  drama,  —  the  plot  against  Csesar  and  its 
results. 

Find  some  tale  or  drama  which  begins  in  this  way, 
and  show  at  what  point  the  explanatory  matter  is 
brought  in. 

SECTION   LXIII. 
THE    CONCLUSION. 

It  is  often  hard  to  bring  a  composition  to  a  fitting 
and  graceful  close.  The  difficulty  varies  with  the 
nature  of  the  subject  and  the  manner  of  treatment. 

A  narrative  naturally  comes  to  an  end  when  there  is 
no  more  to  be  told  and  the  characters  have  been  properly 
dismissed.  Observe  the  way  in  which  your  favorite 
story-books  end. 

A  short  anecdote  ends  with  the  "  point "  for  the  sake 
of  which  it  is  told  (see  Section  XX). 

A  description  may  require  a  more  formal  conclusion. 
Sometimes  a  paragraph  is  necessary  to  sum  up  the  main 


358  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

points  of  the  composition.  Sometimes  a  general  remark 
about  the  subject  makes  a  fitting  conclusion.  Very 
often,  however,  nothing  of  the  kind  is  necessary. 

Above  all  things,  one  should  avoid  the  practice  of 
concluding  with  a  commonplace  moral  or  a  feeble  bit  of 
sentiment.  The  conclusion  ought  to  seem  natural  and 
inevitable.  Otherwise  it  is  usually  better  to  "stop 
when  you  get  through,"  even  at  the  risk  of  a  little 
abruptness.  In  a  letter,  however,  an  abrupt  ending 
may  suggest  discourtesy  and  thus  give  a  false  impression 
of  the  writer. 

SECTION   LXIV. 

Study  the  conclusions  of  four  or  five  pieces  of  prose 
or  poetry  in  your  reading-book,  and  try  to  discover  the 
reason  for  each  and  for  the  differences  between  them. 

SECTION   LXV. 
TRANSITION. 

A  good  writer  does  not  force  his  readers  to  jump  from 
sentence  to  sentence  and  from  paragraph  to  paragraph. 
He  smooths  the  path  for  them,  so  that  they  go  on  by 
easy  stages,  without  great  effort  or  undue  delay. 

In  other  words,  a  good  writer  is  careful  about  transition. 

Transition  (from  the  Latin  trans,  "across,"  and  ire,  "to  go")  means 
simply  "  the  act  or  process  of  crossing  "  (as  a  stream  or  mountain  range). 

Read  over  »  The  Society  of  Good  Books  "  (p.  339), 
and  observe  how  easy  you  find  it  to  follow  the  writer's 
thought. 


LESSONS   IN   COMPOSITION.  359 

SECTION   LXVI. 
MEANS    OF    TRANSITION. 

Transition  is  assisted  by  a  careful  arrangement  of 
words,  so  that  the  end  of  one  sentence  leads  up  to  the 
beginning  of  another ;  or,  in  paragraphs,  by  similar  care 
in  the  arrangement  of  sentences. 

Frequently,  too,  a  whole  sentence  is  needed,  not  for 
anything  new  that  it  has  to  tell,  but  merely  for  the  help 
it  gives  in  showing  the  connection  of  thought.  In  a 
long  essay,  a  paragraph  may  be  needed  for  precisely  the 
same  purpose. 

An  easy  passage  (transition)  from  sentence  to  sen- 
tence is  often  effected  by  the  use  of  words  and  phrases 
like  however,  nevertheless,  thus,  hence,  also,  so,  in  this  way, 
such.  These  connectives,  however,  should  not  be  used 
idly,  —  merely  "  to  fill  up "  or  "  make  the  sentence 
smooth."  They  have  their  several  meanings  and  assist 
in  expressing  the  connection  of  thought. 

A  pronoun  referring  to  a  noun  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tence often  serves  the  purpose  of  transition. 

Careless  speakers  and  writers  have  a  habit,  in  telling 
a  story,  of  tacking  their  sentences  together  with  and's. 
A  moment's  thought  will  show  how  slovenly  this  habit 
is,  even  in  ordinary  conversation.  But  is  also  over-used 
by  many  persons. 

To  the  Teacher.  — The  principle  of  transition  should  now  be  studied 
in  passages  of  some  length,  and  for  this  purpose  the  reading-book  (or  the 
particular  piece  of  literature  which  the  pupils  are  reading)  may  be  uti- 
lized. The  bad  effect  of  omitting  transitional  particles,  phrases,  and  sen- 
tences from  a  smooth  piece  of  connected  prose  may  be  made  clear  to  the 
youngest  pupils  by  experiment. 


360  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTION   LXVII, 
EMPHASIS. 

In  speaking  we  use  emphasis  to  assist  the  hearer  in 
understanding  exactly  what  we  mean.  In  writing  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  indicate  such  emphasis.  Yet,  unless 
the  reader  knows  which  words  or  phrases  are  meant  to 
be  emphatic,  he  may  lose  the  effect  of  a  whole  sentence. 
In  verse  the  metre  is  of  assistance.  In  prose  we  must 
trust  much  to  the  reader's  intelligence,  but  some  help 
is  given  by  the  order  of  words. 


Study  the  following  passages  and  indicate  such  words, 
or  groups  of  words,  as  seem  to  you  emphatic. 

Test  your  opinion  by  reading  each  sentence  aloud. 

Do  you  see  anything  peculiar  about  the  position  of 
these  words? 

1.  These,  therefore,  I  can  pity. 

2.  In  the  night  it  blew  very  hard,  and  a  great  sea  tumbled  in 
upon  the  shore ;  but,  being  extremely  fatigued,  we  in  the  boats 
went  to  sleep. 

3.  Even  in  sleep,  however,  my  fancy  was  still  busy ;  and  a 
dream,  so  vivid  as  to  leave  behind  it  the  impression  of  reality, 
thus  passed  through  my  mind. 

4.  Think,  when  we  talk  of  horses,  that  you  see  them 
Printing  their  proud  hoofs  i'  the  receiving  earth. 

5.  Never  was  such  a  sudden  scholar  made. 

6.  A  black  day  will  it  be  to  somebody. 

7.  Some  war,  some  plague,  some  famine  they  foresee. 

8.  The  fur  that  warms  a  monarch,  warmed  a  bear. 

9.  What  a  delicious  veranda  is  this  to  dream  in  I 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  361 

10.  By  good  luck  I  got  an  excellent  place  in  the  best  part  of 
the  house. 

11.  There  fell  a  thick  and  heavy  rain,  and  the  ground  on 
which  the  beleaguering  army  must  needs  take  up  their  position 
was  muddy  and  intersected  with  many  canals. 

12.  Tier  beyond  tier,  height  above  height,  the  great  wooded 
ranges  go  rolling  away  westward,  till  on  the  lofty  sky-line  they 
are  crowned  with  a  gleam  of  everlasting  snow. 

13.  With  blackest  moss  the  flower-pots 
Were  thickly  crusted,  one  and  all. 

14.  Far  as  the  eye  can  reach  up  the  glen,  and  to  the  right,  it 
is  one  horrid  waste  of  gray  granite ;  here  and  there  a  streak  of 
yellow  grass  or  a  patch  of  black  bog  ;  not  a  tree  or  a  shrub 
within  the  sky-line. 

SECTION  LXVIII. 
METHODS    OF   EMPHASIS. 

Your  study  of  the  sentences  in  Section  LXVII  has 
shown  you  that  every  variation  from  the  simplest  order 
of  words  makes  a  difference  in  emphasis. 

Thus,  in  the  first  example,  the  object  is  put  before  the  subject 
and  the  verb ;  in  the  fifth,  an  adverb  comes  first,  and  the  subject 
follows  was ;  in  the  tenth,  the  adverbial  modifier  "  by  good  luck  " 
begins  the  sentence. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Such  variations  cannot  be  reduced  to  hard-and- 
fast  rules.  The  student  should  "read  authors"  and  observe  how  they 
arrange  their  words  and  clauses.  He  may  then  try  to  reproduce  the 
simpler  effects  in  his  own  writing.  The  hints  that  follow  will  be  of  some 
assistance.  From  the  outset,  however,  he  should  be  warned  against 
violent  or  affected  distortions. 

A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  is  often  emphasized  by 
coming  before  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 


362  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

The  simple  subject  and  the  predicate  verb  may  both 
become  emphatic  when  they  change  places  in  the  sen- 
tence or  clause. 

The  object  may  be  emphasized  by  making  it  precede 
the  verb. 

The  end  of  a  clause  or  sentence  is  often  an  emphatic 
position. 

Study  the  following  sentences  and  notice  the  position 
of  the  emphatic  words. 

1.  Be  secret  and  be  safe. 

2.  Then  would  come  a  fit  of  despondency,  almost  of  despair. 

3.  Here  giant  weeds  a  passage  scarce  allow 
To  halls  deserted,  portals  gaping  wide. 

4.  It 's  hard  to  part  with  the  old  farm  and  the  old  faces  now. 

5.  Few  parliaments  have  ever  been  more  memorable,  or  more 
truly  representative  of  the  English  people,  than  the  parliament  of 
1654. 

6.  False  face  must  hide  what  the  false  heart  doth  know. 

7.  His  eyes  grew  brighter,  his  bearing  more  majestic,  his 
heart  softer  towards  his  fellow-creatures. 

8.  This  house  is  mine.  Go !  I  will  never  forget  and  never 
forgive.     Go ! 

9.  A  vast  confusion  of  formless  rocks  crosses  the  stream, 
torturing  it  into  a  hundred  boiling  pools  and  hissing  cascades. 

10.  Young  men  are  fitter  to  invent  than  to  judge. 

11.  We  are  no  tyrant,  but  a  Christian  king. 

12.  A  wise  man  changes  his  mind,  a  fool  never  will. 

13.  Next  to  being  too  late,  being  too  soon  is  the  worst  plan  in 
the  world. 

14.  I  heard  the  owl  scream  and  the  crickets  cry. 

15.  His  features  are  strong  and  masculine,  with  an  Austrian 
lip  and  arched  nose ;  his  complexion  olive,  his  bearing  erect,  his 
body  and  limbs  well  proportioned,  all  his  motions  graceful,  and 
his  deportment  majestic. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  363 

SECTION   LXIX. 

You  observe  that  each  of  the  passages  in  Section 
LXVIII  contains  two  or  more  words  or  phrases  that 
stand  in  the  same  position  in  the  sentence. 

Such  an  arrangement  indicates  emphasis. 

You  note  also  that  the  parallelism  of  arrangement  is 
often  emphasized  by  a  repetition  of  the  same  word. 

Finally  you  observe  that  in  some  of  the  passages  the 
emphatic  words  are  contrasted  with  each  other.  Such 
a  contrast  is  called  antithesis. 

If  you  have  missed  any  of  these  points,  review  each 
sentence  and  observe  them  carefully. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Sections  LXVII  and  LXVIII  may  be  used  as  the 
material  for  several  lessons. 

SECTION   LXX. 
Study  the  style  and  the  matter  of  this  poem. 

AN   APRIL   DAY. 

Ail  day  the  low-hung  clouds  have  dropped 

Their  garnered  fullness  down  ; 
All  day  that  soft,  gray  mist  hath  wrapped 

Hill,  valley,  grove,  and  town. 

There  has  not  been  a  sound  to-day 

To  break  the  calm  of  nature ; 
Nor  motion  I  might  almost  say, 

Of  life,  or  living  creature  ; 

Of  waving  bough,  or  warbling  bird, 

Or  cattle  faintly  lowing ; 
I  could  have  half  believed  I  heard 

The  leaves  and  blossoms  growing. 


864  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

I  stood  to  hear  —  I  love  it  well  — 

The  rain's  continuous  sound  : 
Small  drops,  but  thick  and  fast  they  fell, 

Down  straight  into  the  ground. 

For  leafy  thickness  is  not  yet 
Earth's  naked  breast  to  screen ; 

Though  every  dripping  branch  is  set 
With  shoots  of  tender  green. 

Sure  since  I  looked  at  early  morn, 

Those  honeysuckle  buds 
Have  swelled  to  double  growth  ;  that  thorn 

Hath  put  forth  larger  studs. 

That  lilac's  cleaving  cones  have  burst, 
The  milk-white  flowers  revealing , 

Even  now,  upon  my  senses  first 
Methinks  their  sweets  are  stealing. 

The  very  earth,  the  steamy  air, 

Is  all  with  fragrance  rife ; 
And  grace  and  beauty  everywhere 

Are  flushing  into  life. 

Down,  down  they  come  —  those  fruitful  stores, 

Those  earth-rejoicing  drops ! 
A  momentary  deluge  pours, 

Then  thins,  decreases,  stops. 

And  ere  the  dimples  on  the  stream 

Have  circled  out  of  sight, 
Lo  !  from  the  west  a  parting  gleam 

Breaks  forth,  of  amber  light. 

But  yet  behold  !  abrupt  and  loud, 
Comes  down  the  glittering  rain  ; 
The  farewell  of  a  passing  cloud, 


The  fringes  of  her  train. 


Caroline  Southey. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  365 

SECTION   LXXI. 
LETTER- WRITING. 

Every  educated  person  practises  the  art  of  composi- 
tion whenever  he  writes  a  letter.  This,  indeed,  is  one 
of  the  reasons  why  composition  should  be  studied. 

Such  study  enables  us  to  express  our  thoughts  freely, 
clearly,  and  in  a  pleasing  manner,  and  thus  to  make 
our  letters  effective  as  well  as  agreeable.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  neglect  of  the  principles  of  composition  not 
only  betrays  the  writer's  ignorance,  but  often  hope- 
lessly confuses  the  reader,  and  thus  defeats  the  whole 
purpose  of  letter-writing. 

An  illegible  and  badly  spelled  letter,  not  divided  into 
paragraphs,  and  defying  all  sense  of  unity,  is  a  disgrace 
to  the  sender  and  an  annoyance  to  the  recipient. 

There  are  two  main  lines  of  study  and  practice  which 
are  essential  to  letter-writing.  These  are  readily  shown 
by  the  analysis  of  the  following  letters. 

i. 

[An  informal  letter  from  a  sister  to  her  brother.] 

260  Caroline  St., 
Saratoga,  N.  Y., 

Jan.  7,  1901. 
Dear  Frank, 

I  reached  Saratoga  yesterday,  after  a  very  pleasant  ride  through 
the  Berkshire  Hills.  The  railroad  follows  the  bed  of  a  wind- 
ing mountain  stream,  which  proved  a  very  agreeable  travelling 
companion. 

Saratoga  is  quite  as  attractive  in  the  winter  as  in  the  summer. 
One  seldom  sees  such  aspiring  pines.     You  know  I  like  trees. 


366  .     THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

I  forgot  my  trunk  key,  like  a  goose.  I  left  it  on  the  hall  table. 
Can  yon  send  it  to  me  by  return  mail  ?  Possibly  you  have  sent 
it  already.     That  would  be  like  you. 

This  letter  goes  in  haste,  —  merely  to  assure  you  of  my  safe 
arrival.  But  there  is  time  to  remind  you  that  the  best  part 
of  being  here  will  be  the  letters  from  home.  Write  as  often  as 
you  can.  * 

Your  loving  sister, 

Margaret. 

II. 

[A  friendly  letter  from  a  gentleman  to'  a  business  acquaintance.] 

13  Chestnut  Terrace, 

Auburn,  N.  Y., 

Oct.  15,  1900. 
Dear  Mr.  Thompson, 

In  our  conversation  last  Tuesday,  you  referred  to  your  son 
Robert,  and  mentioned  his  desire  to  make  a  bicycle  tour  through 
England  and  Wales. 

To-day  my  cousin,  Frank  Meade,  tells  me  that  he  intends  to 
spend  next  summer  in  England,  and  that  he  is  looking  for  a 
travelling  companion. 

Frank  is  a  fine  fellow,  —  well-bred,  sensible,  and  trustworthy, 
a  good  comrade  and  an  excellent  traveller.  He  graduated  from 
Cornell  in  '86,  and  has  been  abroad  three  times  since. 

It  at  once  occurred  to  me  that  Robert  might  wish  to  accompany 
Frank.  They  would  like  each  other,  I  am  sure.  If  you  care  to 
consider  the  matter,  I  will  ask  Frank  to  call  upon  you,  and  you 
can  talk  it  over  together.  He  tells  me  that  he  intends  to  be  in 
Rochester  early  next  week. 

Sincerely  yours, 

John  F.  Morgan. 
Arthur  S.  Thompson,  Esq., 

1120  Main  St., 

Rochester,  N.  Y, 


LEU  SONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  367 

III. 

[A  business  letter,  ordering  books.] 

Oakview  School, 

Syracuse,  N.  Y., 

Sept.  11,  1900. 
Messrs.  Abbot,  Carnes  &  Co., 

21  Astor  Place, 

New  York  City. 

Gentlemen : 

Please  send  me,  by  express,  C.  O.  D.,  fifty  (50)  copies  of  Stuart's 
"  Note  Books,"  Xo.  3. 

We  need  the  books  at  once,  and  have  just  discovered  that  our 
supply  is  exhausted. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Marshall  T.  Brown. 

These  three  examples  illustrate  the  common  charac- 
teristics of  all  letters. 

Observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  each  letter  is  written 
for  the  purpose  of  conveying  a  message.  That  is  its 
main  business.  It  follows,  then,  that  the  writer  must 
know  how  to  compose  his  message,  or  express  his 
thought,  in  an  appropriate  manner  —  clearly,  so  that 
it  may  be  understood,  and  courteously,  so  that  it  may 
be  agreeably  received. 

It  is  evident  that  the  relation  of  the  writer  to  the 
reader  determines  the  style  of  each  letter. 

No.  1,  a  letter  from  a  sister  to  a  brother,  is  altogether 
informal.  The  writer  speaks  of  personal  pleasures  and 
tastes,  assumes  her  brother's  interest  in  her  pleasant 
journey  and  safe  arrival,  asks  his  help  in  recovering  the 
key  of  her  trunk,  and  gracefully  acknowledges  his 
thoughtfulness.    Though  the  note  is  brief,  she  has  time 


368  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

to  express  her  sisterly  affection  in  the  phrase  which  re- 
minds her  brother  of  the  pleasure  which  his  letters 
always  give  her. 

No.  2  is  a  friendly  letter  of  a  business  nature,  and  is 
more  formal  than  No.  1.  It  definitely  presents  a  matter 
of  interest  to  the  recipient.  Observe  the  manner  in 
which  young  Mr.  Meade  is  introduced  to  Mr.  Thomp- 
son.    Study  the  letter  as  a  composition. 

No.  3  is  a  business  letter  pure  and  simple,  such  as  pass 
between  people  who  have  business  relations  merely. 
It  is  brief  and  concise.  The  second  sentence  explains 
the  necessity  for  rapid  delivery,  and  gives  the  reason 
for  the  comparatively  small  order.  Personal  allusions 
are  omitted.  The  statement  is  brief,  definite,  and  busi- 
ness-like. 

Study  all  three  letters  carefully.  Observe  the  sen- 
tences and  the  paragraphs  as  well  as  the  general  style. 

SECTION   LXXII. 
THE    PARTS    OF    A   LETTER. 

The  principles  which  govern  all  composition  apply 
to  letter-writing.  The  writer  should  have  clearly  in 
mind  what  he  wishes  to  say,  should  make  his  meaning 
clear,  and  should  express  himself  in  a  style  appropriate 
to  the  occasion.  He  is  helped  to  do  this  by  the  general 
principles  of  unity,  clearness,  and  the  like,  and,  further, 
by  certain  rules  or  customs  of  arrangement. 

These  rules  or  customs  enable  us  to  make  our  letters 
intelligible  with  the  least  possible  trouble  to  ourselves 
and  our  correspondents.  A  study  of  the  three  letters 
in  Section  LXXI  will  make  this  perfectly  clear. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  369 

For  example,  we  find  at  the  right-hand  upper  corner 
of  each  letter  a  "  heading,"  which  includes  the  address 
of  the  writer  and  the  date  of  writing. 

From  this  heading  the  recipient  can  tell  at  a  glance 
how  to  address  his  reply.  He  is  not  forced  to  search 
through  the  letter  to  find  out  where  his  correspondent 
resides  or  is  staying.  If  Margaret  omits  the  address 
in  writing  to  her  brother  Frank,  she  may  fail  to 
receive  her  key.  If  Mr.  Morgan  omits  his  address, 
Mr.  Thompson  may  be  put  to  the  trouble  of  consulting 
old  letters,  or  the  Directory,  before  he  can  reply  to 
the  letter.  If  Mr.  Brown  omits  his  address,  he  may 
prevent  the  early  delivery  of  the  books  which  he  needs 
so  much. 

The  date  is  equally  important,  even  in  friendly 
letters.  "  I  shall  be  in  town  to-morrow,"  writes  Mr. 
Adams  to  his  son,  "and  shall  take  luncheon  at  the 
Astor  House  at  one  o'clock.  Come  and  lunch  with 
me."  But  the  date  is  omitted  from  the  heading,  the 
letter  is  delayed,  and  the  son  has  no  means  of  knowing 
what  day  is  referred  to  as  "  to-morrow." 

Thus  a  brief  study  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  for- 
mal customs  which  are  followed  in  letter- writing  are 
dictated  by  convenience.  Certain  forms  are  generally 
agreed  upon,  and  these  are  followed  by  the  careful 
writer. 

Brief  notes  to  intimate  friends  may  dispense  with 
ceremony ;  but  even  in  these  the  settled  customs  of 
letter-writing  are  followed  in  the  main. 

The  following  summary  will  serve  as  a  review  of  the 
essential  rules  which  govern  the  formal  arrangement  of 
letters. 


370  THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 

A  letter  consists  of  the  following  parts :  — 

I.  The  heading,  which  should  contain  the  writer's 
address  and  the  date.     Thus,  — 

260  Caroline  St.,  Hobart  College, 

Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  Geneva,  N.  Y., 

Jan.  7,  1901.  Oct.  8,  1900. 

Waco,  Kas.,  Marshfield,  Mass., 

Feb.  3,  1901.  Dec.  2,  1900. 

For  the  position  of  the  heading,  see  the  letters  on 
pp.  365-7. 

II.  The  salutation,  which  takes  various  forms  accord- 
ing to  the  relation  between  the  writer  and  the  recipient. 
Thus, 

Dear  Madam,  My  dear  Sir, 

My  dear  Madam,  Dear  Sirs, 

Dear  Sir,  Gentlemen  : 

are   appropriate   salutations  in  business   letters.     "  My 
dear  Sir "  is  more  formal  than  "  Dear  Sir." 

Dear  Mr.  Jackson,  My  dear  Mrs.  Hatch, 

Dear  Mrs.  Erroll,  My  dear  Miss  Fernald, 

are   proper  in   friendly   letters,    or  in   business   letters 
addressed  to  a  person  whom  one  knows  well. 

Dear  James,  Dear  Uncle, 

My  dear  John,  Dear  Edith, 

Dear  Cousin  Mary,  My  dear  Elizabeth, 

are  proper  in  familiar  letters. 

The  salutation  may  be  followed  by  a  comma,  by  a  comma  and 
a  dash,  by  a  colon,  or  by  a  colon  and  a  dash.     The  comma  is  least 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  371 

formal.     In  business  letters,  the  colon  (with  or  without  the  dash) 
is  often  preferred,  especially  after  "  Gentlemen." 

In  formal  business  letters  the  name  and  address  of 
the  recipient  often  come  before  the  salutation.  See 
this  arrangement  in  No.  3,  on  p.  367. 

For  the  position  of  the  salutation,  see  pp.  365-7. 

III.  The  body  of  the  letter,  which  consists  of  the  mes- 
sage itself.  This  should  be  legibly  and  clearly  written, 
in  paragraphs.  It  should  also  be  carefully  punctuated, 
and  expressed  in  a  style  appropriate  to  the  occasion. 

IV.  The  form§Lj:losing.  This  is  merely  a  courteous 
phrase,  indicating  the  relation  in  which  the  writer  stands 
to  his  correspondent.     Thus,  in  business  letters,  — 

Yours  truly,  Yours  sincerely, 

Very  truly  yours,  Sincerely  yours, 

Respectfully  yours,  Very  sincerely  yours, 

Or,  in  familiar  or  affectionate  letters,  — 

Faithfully  yours,  Your  loving  son, 

Yours  cordially,  Yours,  with  love. 

Observe  that  the  forms  given  in  the  first  list  are  not 
all  suitable  for  every  kind  of  business  letter.  "  Yours 
truly"  or  "Very  truly  yours"  will  fit  almost  any  such 
letter.  The  ferns  with  "  sincerely  "  are  more  intimate 
and  less  formal.  "  Respectfully  yours  "  should  never 
be  used  unless  special  respect  is  intended.  It  is  proper 
in  writing  to  a  high  official  or  to  a  person  much  older 
than  one's  self.  I;i  an  ordinary  business  letter,  how- 
ever, it  should  not  be  used.  It  is  in  very  question- 
able taste  to  add  "  Yours  respectfully  "  to  an  order,  for 


372  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

example,  like  that  in  No.  3,  p.  367.     When  in  doubt, 
write  "  Very  truly  yours,"  which  is  always  safe. 

V.  The  signature.  Except  in  very  familiar  letters,  this 
is  the  name  of  the  writer  in  the  form  which  he  habitually 
uses  in  signing  a  document. 

If  the  writer  is  a  lady,  she  should  indicate  whether  she  is  to 
be  addressed  as  Miss  or  as  Mrs.  This  may  be  done  by  prefixing 
the  title  (in  parentheses)  to  the  signature  :  — (Miss)  Alice  Atherton. 
Or  the  proper  form  may  be  written  below  the  signature,  and  at 
the  left  of  the  page. 

The  name  and  address  of  the  person  for  whom  a  letter 
is  intended  are  usually  either  placed  above  the  salutation 
(as  in  No.  3,  p.  367),  or  below  the  signature  and  at  the 
left  of  the  page  (as  in  No.  2).  In  familiar  letters  the 
latter  arrangement  is  usual,  but  the  address  is  often 
omitted. 

VI.  The  superscription  or  the  direction,  which  is  written 
on  the  envelope,  consists  of  the  name  and  address  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  letter  is  sent. 

Mr.  John  Eliot  Newell 

65  State  Street 

Richmond 

V  lrginia 

[Or,  — John  Eliot  Newell,  Esq.] 

SECTIONS    LXXIII-LXXXII. 
FRIENDLY   LETTERS. 

73.  You  have  just  taken  a  tour  through  Georgia  and  Florida 
and  are  now  at  St.  Augustine.  Write  to  a  friend  at  home. 
Describe  the  country  through  which  you  have  passed  and  the 
cities  which  you  have  visited.     Add  anything  else  of  interest. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  373 

74.  Imagine  yourself  to  have  taken  an  ocean  voyage  from 
Liverpool  to  Calcutta,  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  Write  a 
letter  from  Calcutta  to  your  friend  George  Koester,  describing  the 
voyage. 

75.  Write  to  your  friend  Harold  Starr,  who  lives  in  Grafton, 
Nebraska,  asking  him  to  spend  the  Christmas  holidays  with  you. 
Tell  him  what  you  will  do  to  make  his  visit  agreeable. 

76.  Your  friend  Richard  Upham,  who  lives  at  Winchester, 
Pennsylvania,  writes  to  ask  for  directions  which  will  help  him  to 
get  from  the  railroad  station  in  your  city  to  your  house.     Write 

-to  him,  giving  him  careful  directions. 

4—  77.  Imagine  yourself  in  Honolulu.  Write  to  some  member  of 
your  family.  Tell  how  the  climate  differs  from  that  of  your  own 
city,  what  fruits  are  raised,  of  what  races  the  population  consists, 
and  add  anything  else  which  may  be  of  interest. 

78.  Write  from  London  to  your  friend  Jane  Atherton  in 
Syracuse,  and  describe  some  of  the  interesting  places  that  you 
have  visited. 

79.  Write  a  descriptive  letter  from  one  of  the  places  named 
below :  — 

Yokohama,  Constantinople, 

Hongkong,  Paris, 

Melbourne,  Edinburgh, 

Cape  Colony,  Sitka, 

Rome,  Chicago. 

80.  Your  friend  Edith  Graham  writes  to  ask  you  about  a 
boarding  school  in  your  town  which  she  thinks  of  attending  next 
year.     Reply  appropriately. 

81.  Write  to  your  cousin  Robert  giving  an  account  of  some 
adventure  which  happened  to  you  in  your  recent  visit  to  Niagara 

Falls. 

82.  Write  Robert's  reply,  recounting  an  experience  of  his  own. 


374  TEE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

SECTIONS    LXXXIII-XCII. 
BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

83.  The  Evanston  Gazette  is  a  weekly  paper  printed  in  your 
town.  Write  to  the  publisher,  asking  him  to  send  the  paper  for 
one  year  to  your  friend,  John  S.  Stewart,  Aberdeen,  Colorado. 
Enclose  a  check  for  two  dollars  in  payment. 

84.  Write  to  Mr.  John  S.  Swift,  head  of  the  publishing  house 
of  Swift  Brothers,  Toledo,  Ohio,  asking  him  for  a  position  in  his 
employ.     Tell  him  what  you  can  do  and  what  you  prefer  to  do. 

85.  Write  to  a  farmer  in  a  country  town  not  far  from  your 
home,  asking  him  to  send  you,  by  express,  twenty-five  pounds  of 
good  butter. 

86.  There  is  a  mistake  in  a  bill  which  you  have  just  received 
from  your  coal  dealer.  Write  to  him,  calling  his  attention  to  the 
mistake  and  asking  to  have  the  bill  corrected. 

87.  Write  a  letter  to  your  teacher,  telling  her  that  you  are 
suddenly  compelled  to  leave  school  without  completing  your 
course.  Ask  for  a  letter  of  recommendation  to  help  you  in 
securing  employment. 

88.  Write  a  letter  to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  your 
town,  asking  him  to  be  present  at  a  gymnastic  exhibition. 

89.  Write  to  Messrs.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston,  asking 
them  to  send  you  by  express  a  copy  of  "  Virginia  and  her  Neigh- 
bors," by  John  Fiske. 

90.  Write  a  letter  of  recommendation  for  a  boy  who  has  been 
in  your  service.  Assume  that  you  are  at  the  head  of  a  bank  or 
of  a  large  business  house. 

91.  Write  to  the  agent  of  a  steamship  company,  asking  for 
information  about  the  steamships  of  his  line,  —  the  time  of  sail- 
ing, the  cost  of  passage,  the  nature  of  the  accommodations,  etc. 

92.  Write  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  in 
some  large  city,  asking  him  to  tell  you  when  the  next  examination 
will  occur  and  to  send  you  a  circular  of  information  regarding  it. 


LESSONS   IN   COMPOSITION.  375 

SECTION   XCIII. 
INVITATIONS. 

Invitations  and  replies  are  either  formal  or  informal. 
The  reply  should  accord  with  the  style  of  the  invitation. 

An  informal  invitation  is  written  like  any  other 
familiar  letter,  except  that  the  heading  is  often  less 
exact  in  designating  the  date  and  place.  Sometimes 
the  heading  is  omitted  altogether. 

A  formal  invitation  is  always  in  the  third  person.  It 
has  no  heading,  no  salutation,  and  no  v*  Yours  truly  " 
(or  the  like)  at  the  end.  It  is  also  unsigned,  for  the 
writer's  name  appears  in  the  body  of  the  invitation. 

In  both  formal  and  informal  invitations  the  date  and 
the  address  of  the  sender  may  be  written  below  and  at 
the  left.  The  day  of  the  month  is  often  written  out  in 
full,  and  the  year  may  be  omitted. 

If  the  invitation  is  very  formal,  it  may  be  arranged 
in  lines  of  different  lengths,  as  in  the  example.  This 
is  the  practice  when  it  is  engraved. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Egbert 

request  the  pleasure  of 

Mr.  Johnston's 

company  at  dinner 

on  Wednesday,  January  14th, 

at  seven  o'clock. 

43  Grantham  Street. 

A  formal  reply  is  also  in  the  third  person,  and 
conforms  to  the  style  of  the  invitation  in  other 
respects.  It  should  not,  however,  be  "  displayed " 
like  an  engraved  invitation,- 


376  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


SECTION   XCIV.  ^ 

Copy  the  following  letters  and  observe  the  parts  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

i. 

[A  formal  invitation  and  a  reply.] 

Mrs.  John  T.  Lawrence  requests  the  pleasure  of  Miss  Ainslee's 
company  at  dinner  on  Wednesday,  February  twenty-seventh,  at 
seven  o'clock. 

239  Main  Street. 

Miss  Ainslee  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  prevents  her 
accepting  Mrs.  Lawrence's  kind  invitation  for  Wednesday  evening. 
13  Chestnut  Terrace, 

February  twenty-fourth. 

Miss  Ainslee  accepts  with  pleasure  Mrs.  Lawrence's  kind  invi- 
tation for  Wednesday  evening,  February  twenty-seventh,  at  seven 
o'clock. 

13  Chestnut  Terrace, 

February  twenty-fourth. 

II. 

[Informal  invitations  and  replies.] 

5  Clifton  Road, 

Thursday  morningv 
Dear  Miss  Adams, 

May  I  have  the  pleasure  of  taking  you  and 
your  sister  to  drive  in  the  Park  this  afternoon  ?  The  day  is  a 
beautiful  one,  and  I  do  not  like  to  have  you  return  to  the  west 
without  seeing  the  prettiest  thing  our  town  has  to  show. 

If  it  is  convenient  for  you,  I  will  call  at  three  o'clock.  The 
bearer  will  wait  for  your  reply. 

Most  cordially  yours, 

Charlotte  L.  Fanshaw. 


LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  377 

My  dear  Mrs.  Richards, 

Will  you  and  Mr.  Richards  give  us  the  pleasure  of  your 
company  at  dinner  on  Friday,  August  tenth,  at  seven  o'clock  ? 

Sincerely  yours, 

Mary  Sanderson. 

9  Hilton  Place, 
August  third. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Sanderson, 

It  will  give  us  great  pleasure  to  dine  with  you  on  Friday, 
the  tenth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

Sincerely  yours,  ' 

Helen  Richards. 

10  Alton  Street, 
August  fourth. 

My  dear  Mrs.  Sanderson, 

I  am  very  sorry  that  a  previous  engagement  will  deprive 
us  of  the  pleasure  of  dining  with  you  on  Friday. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Helen  Richards. 
10  Alton  Street, 
August  fourth. 

SECTION  XCV. 

BUSINESS    TRANSACTIONS. 

A  business  transaction  may  require  much  correspond- 
ence before  its  details  are  settled.  There  are  usually 
preliminary  inquiries,  definite  propositions,  an  agree- 
ment, and  the  performance  of  the  agreement.  All  these 
"  items  "  require  letter-writing. 


378  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Mr.  John  T.  King  desires  to  send  his  twelve-year  old  son  to  a 
summer  camp  for  boys.  He  corresponds  with  Mr.  Elmer  E.  Ells- 
worth, 25  Cudworth  St.,  Albany,  New  York,  in  regard  to  the 
matter.     Write  the  necessary  letters. 

1.  Mr.  King  makes  preliminary  inquiries. 

2.  Mr.  Ellsworth  replies,  sending  a  circular  and  answering 
Mr.  King's  questions.  He  asks  for  a  description  of  the  boy,  and 
a  definite  statement  of  the  father's  purpose  in  sending  him  to  the 
camp. 

3.  Mr.  King  replies,  and  makes  inquiries  as  to  the  acquaint- 
ances his  son  may  make  in  camp. 

4.  Mr.  Ellsworth  replies. 

5.  Mr.  King  engages  a  place  for  his  boy. 

6.  Bill  rendered  by  Mr.  Ellsworth  at  the  end  of  the  session. 

7.  Check  sent  by  Mr.  King  in  payment  of  Mr.  Ellsworth's  bill. 

8.  Letter  from  Mr.  King  to  Mr.  Ellsworth,  expressing  his 
appreciation  of  the  treatment  his  boy  has  received,  and  his  cordial 
approval  of  the  camp. 

SECTION   XCVI. 

Mr.  John  Smith  is  the  teacher  of  history  in  the  Oakview 
School.  There  are  eighteen  pupils  in  his  class  and  he  wishes 
to  secure  for  them  copies  of  Green's  "  Short  History  of  the 
English  People."  It  is  necessary  for  him  to  learn  the  cost  of 
the  books;  whether  a  discount  will  be  allowed  to  his  class; 
how  and  when  the  books  can  be  delivered. 

1.  Write  a  letter  asking  the  publishers  to  send  a  sample  copy 
of  the  book  to  show  to  the  class. 

2.  Write  the  publishers'  reply  which  accompanies  the  book. 

3.  Write  the  order  for  eighteen  copies,  asking  to  have  the 
books  sent  by  express. 

4.  Prepare  the  bill  which  should  accompany  the  books. 

5.  Write  a  letter  announcing  the  safe  arrival  of  the  books  and 
enclosing  a  check  in  payment. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  379 

SECTION   XCVII. 
TELEGRAMS. 

Important  messages  requiring  haste  are  frequently 
trans  nutted  by  telegraph.  This  means  of  communi- 
cation is  very  commonly  employed  by  business  men. 
The  composition  of  telegrams  is,  therefore,  an  essential 
part  of  a  business  training. 

A  telegram  should  be  brief  and  definite.  The  cost 
of  the  telegram  is  proportioned  to  the  distance.  Ten 
words  are  allowed  for  a  given  rate,  and  every  additional 
word  means  additional  cost.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
to  learn  how  to  limit  the  cost  of  the  telegram  by 
writing  as  concisely  as  possible. 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Practice  in  writing  telegrams  is  valuable  in  devel- 
oping power  of  discrimination  as  well  as  conciseness.  Pupils  should  be 
taught  to  select  the  essential  points  of  a  message  and  to  express  them  in 
the  most  telling  words  within  the  limit  allowed. 

EXERCISES.* 

1.  You  have  travelled  from  Buffalo,  New  York,  to  San 
Francisco,  California.  Telegraph  home  from  San  Francisco  to 
announce  your  safe  arrival.  Add  some  assurance  of  the  comfort 
and  pleasure  of  your  journey. 

2.  Telegraph  to  Robert  S.  Mills  &  Co.,  Newark,  New  Jersey, 
ordering  a  certain  piece  of  machinery  which  is  needed  in  your 
manufactory. 

3.  You  were  present  in  a  railroad  accident,  but  were  unhurt. 
Send  a  telegram  to  your  friends,  so  that  they  may  not  be  alarmed 
by  the  report  of  the  accident. 

*  These  may  also  be  used  as  subjects  for  letters,  and  the  pupil  may  be 
required  to  condense  each  letter  into  a  telegram. 


380  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

4.  You  intend  to  sail  from  New  York  on  the  "City  of  Rome," 
on  June  3,  1901.  Telegraph  to  a  friend  in  Poughkeepsie  to  meet 
you  at  the  steamship  an  hour  before  sailing. 

5.  You  leave  an  important  parcel  in  the  train  and  discover 
your  loss  just  as  you  enter  the  station.  Telegraph  ahead  to  the 
next  station,  asking  the  conductor  to  secure  the  parcel  and  retain 
it  for  you. 

6.  You  are  a  thousand  miles  from  home.  On  the  birthday  of 
your  father,  mother,  or  intimate  friend,  send  a  congratulatory 
telegram. 

7.  You  are  making  a  journey  and  discover,  in  looking  over 
the  time-table,  that  you  are  to  pass  through  the  town  where  your 
brother  is  at  school.  Telegraph  ahead,  telling  him  when  your 
train  will  arrive  and  asking  him  to  come  to  the  station  to  see  you. 

8.  A  friend  has  asked  you  to  buy  a  certain  farm  in  Vermont 
if  a  satisfactory  agreement  can  be  made.  You  have  completed 
the  purchase.     Telegraph  the  important  items  to  your  friend. 

9.  You  have  been  away  from  home  upon  a  business  tour  and 
have  arranged  to  return  earlier  than  you  had  anticipated.  Tele- 
graph home  announcing  your  coming. 

10.  Telegraph  to  a  caterer  in  the  nearest  city,  asking  him  to 
send,  by  two  o'clock  express  to-morrow,  ice  cream  enough  to  serve 
one  hundred  persons. 

SECTION   XCVIII. 
BUSINESS    FORMS. 

Brief  papers  of  a  business  character,  like  bills,  notes, 
receipts,  and  checks,  are  drawn  up  in  accordance  with 
certain  well-established  forms. 

For  these  forms  the  pupil  may  properly  consult  his 
arithmetic  or  his  copy-book. 

For  convenience,  however,  specimens  of  such  papers 
are  given  on  pp.  381-2. 


LESSONS  IN   COMPOSITION.  381 

[Time  Note.] 

$375.25.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  2,  1901. 

Six  months  after  date,  I  promise  to  pay  Benjamin  Parker  three 
hundred  seventy-five  and  -f-0^  dollars,  with  interest  at  5%. 
Value  received.  Robert  Overton. 

[Demand  Note.] 

$375.25.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  17,  1901. 

On  demand,  I  promise  to  pay  Benjamin  Parker  three  hundred 
seventy-five  and  T2o5jj  dollars,  with  interest  at  5%.     Value  received. 

Robert  Overton. 

These  are  promissory  notes.  They  are  payable  to  Benjamin  Parker 
only  unless  they  bear  his  signature  on  the  back  (endorsement).  In  either 
note  the  name  of  Benjamin  Parker  might  be  followed  by  the  words  or 
bearer,  in  which  case  the  note  would  be  payable  to  any  one  having  lawful 
possession  of  it.  Or  the  name  might  be  followed  by  the  words  or  order, 
when  the  note  would  become  payable  to  the  bearer  if  endorsed  by  Benjamin 
Parker. 

[Bank  Draft.] 

$600.25.  New  York,  N.  Y.,  August  12,  1900. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  James  Drew  six  hundred  and  -$fo  dollars, 
value  received,  and  charge  to  account  of 

Shoe  &  Leather  National  Bank,         Smith,  Leland  &  Co. 
Boston,  Mass. 

[Bank  Check.] 

$310.50.  Boston,  Mass.,  March  27,  1901. 

Third  National  Bank,  Boston,  Mass. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  John  Hill  three  hundred  ten  and  ^-fo 
dollars.  John  Enderby. 

[Receipt  on  account.] 
$520.  Chicago,  III.,  Dec.  22,  1900. 

Received  of  James  L.  Williams  five  hundred  twenty  dollars  on 
account.  George  M.  Lyman. 


382 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


[Receipt  in  full.] 

1325.  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  July,  1901. 

Received  of  John  Cotton  three  hundred  twenty-five  dollars  in 


full  of  all  demands  to  date. 


Gerald  Norton. 


Mr.  Alfred  Lee, 


[Hills.] 
Boston,  Mass.,  March  12,  1901. 

Bought  of  Henderson  &  Lewis. 


40  tons  Coal 
20  cords  Wood 


@  $4.75 
@    3.25 


1190 
65 


00 
00 


$255 


00 


Mr.  Henry  Fitzgerald, 


New  York,  Jan.  1,  1901. 
To  James  Brown,  Dr. 


1900 

Nov. 

3 

To  10  lbs.  Coffee 

22 

"    11  lbs.  Lard 

Dec. 

5 

"    25  lbs.  Sugar 

12 

«    2  lbs.  Tea 
Jan.  12,  1901. 

@  35  c. 
@  9  c. 
@  5  c. 
@  65  c. 


i 
i 


50 
99 
25 
30 


Received  Payment, 


$7 


04 


James  Brown. 


When  a  bill  is  paid,  it  is  receipted  by  writing  at  the  bottom  the  date  of 
payment  and  the  words  Received  Payment,  followed  by  the  name  of  the 
person  or  firm  rendering  the  account.  If  a  clerk  lias  authority  to  sign  his 
employer's  name,  he  signs  his  own  name  (preceded  by  the  word  by  or  per) 
under  that  of  his  employer. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

The  English  language  has  a  history  that  extends  back 
for  some  fifteen  hundred  years. 

In  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  England 
was  inhabited  by  various  tribes  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
who  spoke  a  language  altogether  different  from  Eng- 
lish. They  had  been  for  four  centuries  under  the  rule 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  consequently  Latin,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Romans,  was  used  to  some  extent  in  the 
larger  cities.  In  the  main,  however,  the  Britons  spoke 
a  tongue  resembling  that  of  the  modern  inhabitants  of 
Wales,  who  are  their  descendants. 

In  the  fifth  century  the  island  was  invaded  by  several 
wild,  piratical  tribes,  whose  home  was  in  northern  Ger- 
many, in  the  low  countries  on  the  eastern  and  southern 
shores  of  the  North  Sea.  Of  these  tribes  the  most 
important  were  the  Angles  and  the  Saxons,  whose 
language  was  similar  to  that  tongue  which  has  since 
become  Dutch. 

In  a  long  war,  or  rather  a  series  of  wars,  the  Angles 
and  Saxons  made  themselves  masters  of  Britain.  They 
became  civilized  and  began  to  cultivate  literature. 
Their  language,  which  they  usually  called  "  English " 
(that  is,  "the  tongue  of  the  Angles"),  gradually  spread 

383 


384  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

through  most  of  the  island.  In  Wales,  however,  the 
ancient  Britons  continued  to  use  their  own  language, 
which  is  still  spoken  by  their  descendants,  the  Welsh  ; 
and  in  the  northern  part  of  Scotland,  Gaelic,  which  is 
akin  to  Welsh,  and  identical  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
with  the  native  language  of  Ireland,  has  never  died  out. 

The  oldest  period  of  our  language  is  commonly  called 
either  Anglo-Saxon  (from  the  Angles  and  Saxons)  or 
Old  English. 

In  the  year  1066,  England  was  invaded  by  the  Nor- 
mans, a  Scandinavian  tribe  who  had  got  possession  of 
Normandy  (in  northern  France)  about  a  hundred  and 
fifty  years  before.  At  the  time  of  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, the  Normans  had  given  up  their  native  Scandi- 
navian and  spoke  a  dialect  of  French. 

From  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  to  about 
the  year  1400,  two  languages  were  common  in  England : 
(1)  English,  which  was  spoken  by  the  majority  of  the 
people,  and  which  was  a  descendant  of  the  language 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  (2)  French,  which  was  the 
language  of  the  court  and  of  high  society. 

Gradually,  however,  the  speaking  of  French  died  out 
amongst  the  inhabitants  of  England,  except  as  an  ac- 
complishment, and  the  English  tongue  became  the  only 
natural  language  of  Englishmen,  whether  they  were  of 
Anglo-Saxon  or  of  Norman  descent. 

Meantime,  however,  the  Old  English  or  Anglo-Saxon 
language  had  become  very  much  changed.  By  the 
year  1400  it  had  lost  most  of  its  inflections,  and  had 
adopted  a  large  number  of  new  words  from  French  and 
Latin.  Thus,  in  the  following  passage,  most  of  the 
words    printed    in    Roman    type    are    of    Anglo-Saxon 


APPENDIX.  385 

origin,  whereas  the  italicized  words  come  from  Latin 
or  French. 

While  he  was  divided  betwixt  these  reflections,  and  doubtful  of 
•what  he  should  do,  Bruce  was  looking  upward  to  the  roof  of  the 
cabin  in  which  he  lay  ;  and  his  eye  was  attracted  by  a  spider, 
which,  hanging  at  the  end  of  a  long  thread  of  its  own  spinning, 
was  endeavoring,  as  is  the  fashion  of  that  creature,  to  swing  itself 
from  one  beam  in  the  roof  to  another,  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
the  line  on  which  it  meant  to  stretch  its  web.  The  insect  made 
the  attempt  again  and  again  without  success ;  and  at  length  Bruce 
counted  that  it  had  tried  to  carry  its  point  six  times,  and  been  as 
often  unable  to  do  so. 

The  period  of  English  from  about  1200  to  1500  is 
usually  called  the  Middle  English  period,  to  distinguish 
it  from  Old  English  or  Anglo-Saxon  on  the  one  hand, 
and,  on  the  other,  from  Modem  English,  the  form  of 
the  language  with  which  we  are  now  familiar. 

Even  within  that  period  which  we  call  the  Modern 
English  period,  our  language  has  undergone  many 
changes  in  pronunciation,  in  form,  and  in  construction. 
Both  Shakspere  and  Tennyson,  for  example,  are  counted 
as  Modern  English  writers,  but  we  do  not  need  to  be 
told  that  Shakspere's  language  is  considerably  different 
from  that  of  Tennyson. 

The  explorations,  discoveries,  and  conquests  of  the 
people  of  Great  Britain  have  resulted  in  the  spread  of 
their  language  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  so  that  it  is 
now  not  merely  the  language  of  England,  but,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  that  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  North 
America,  Australia,  and  India.  Besides  this,  there  is 
no  quarter  of  the  globe  where  English-speaking  persons 
cannot  be  found. 


386 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


LISTS   OF   VERBS. 

In  lists  I  and  n,  only  such  verb  forms  are  given  as  are 
indisputably  correct  in  accordance  with  the  best  prose 
usage  of  the  present  day.  The  pupil  may  feel  perfectly 
safe,  therefore,  in  using  the  forms  registered  in  these 
lists.1 


Strong  Verbs  in  which  the  Preterite  and  the  Past 
Participle  Differ  in  Form. 

[A  few  verbs  (marked  *)  which  are  seldom  or  never  used  in 
ordinary  language  are  included  in  this  list.  These  have  various 
irregularities.     A  few  verbs  are  partly  strong  and  partly  weak.] 


Present  Tense 

Preterite  Tense 

Past  Participle 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

am  (subjunc,  be) 

was 

been 

awake 

awoke, 

awaked 

awaked 

bear 

bore 

borne,  born 2 

beat 

beat 

beaten 

beget 

begot 

begotten 

begin 

began 

begun 

bid,  command8 

bade 

bidden 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

blow 

blew 

blown 

1  The  omission  of  a  form  from  the  lists,  then,  does  not  necessarily  indi- 
cate that  it  is  "  wrong "  or  even  objectionable.  There  is  considerable 
diversity  of  usage  with  regard  to  the  strong  verbs,  and  to  state  the  facts  at 
length  would  take  much  space.  An  attempt  to  include  archaic,  poetical, 
and  rare  forms  in  the  same  list  with  the  usual  modern  forms  is  sure  to 
mislead  young  students.  Hence  the  lists  here  presented  are  confined 
to  forms  about  whose  correctness  there  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion. 
Archaic  and  poetical  tense-forms  are  treated  later  (pp.  389,  391-393) . 

2  Born  is  used  only  in  the  passive  sense  of  "  born  into  the  world." 

3  For  bid  (at  an  auction),  see  p.  389. 


APPENDIX.                                         30  I 

Present  Tense 

Preterite 

Tense 

Past  Participle 

break 

broke 

broken 

chide 

chid 

chidden 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

*  cleave,  split x 

cleft,  clove  (clave) 

cleft,  cleaved  (cloven,  adj.) 

come 

came 

come 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew    , 

drawn 

drink 

drank 

drunk  (drunken,  adj.) 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went (weak) 

gone 

_grow 

grew 

grown 

hew 

hewed  (weak) 

hewn 

hide 

hid 

hidden 

know 

knew 

known 

lade2 

laded  (weak) 

laded,  laden 

lie,  recline  3 

lay 

lain 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

*rive 

rived  (ivec 

ik) 

riven,  rived 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

1  Cleave,  "to  adhere,"  has  cleaved  in  both  preterite  and  past  participle, 
and  also  an  archaic  preterite  clave. 

2  Load  has  loaded  in  both  preterite  and  past  participle.     Laden  is  some- 
times used  as  the  past  participle  of  load. 

3  Lie,  "to  tell  a  falsehood,"  has  lied  in  both  preterite  and  past  participle. 


38 

THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

Present  Tense 

Preterite  Tense 

Past  Participle 

*  seethe,  transitive    sod,  seethed 

seethed  (sodden,  adj.)1 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shave 

shaved  (weak) 

shaved  (shaven,  adj.) 

show 

showed  (weak) 

shown 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk  (shrunken,  adj.) 

*  shrive 

shrove,  shrived 

shriven,  shrived 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

slay 

slew 

slain 

slide 

slid 

slid,  slidden 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

sow 

sowed  (iveak) 

sowed,  sown 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

spring 

sprang 

sprung- 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

strew 

strewed  (weak) 

strewn 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

strike 

struck 

struck  (stricken,  adj.)2 

strive 

strove 

striven 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

swell 

swelled  (toeak) 

swelled,  swollen 

swim 

swam 

swum 

take 

took 

taken 

tear 

tore 

torn 

thrive 

throve,  thrived 

thriven,  thrived 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

tread 

trod 

trodden 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

write 

wrote 

written 

i  Seethe,  intransitive,  has  usually  seethed  in  both  preterite  and  past 
participle.     It  is  in  rather  common  literary  use. 

2  Stricken  is  also  used  as  a  participle  in  a  figurative  sense.  Thus  we  say : 
"The  community  was  stricken  with  pestilence," — but  "The  dog  was 
struck  with  a  stick." 


APPENDIX. 


389 


Bear,  break,  drive,  get  (beget,  forget),  speak,  stink,  swear,  tear,  have 
archaic  preterites  in  a :  bare,  brake,  drave,  gat,  spake,  etc. 

Beat,  beget  (forget),  bite,  break,  forsake,  hide,  ride,  shake,  speak, 
weave,  write,  and  some  other  verbs,  have  archaic  forms  of  the  past  parti- 
ciple like  those  of  the  preterite.  The  participles  in  -en,  however,  are  now 
the  accepted  forms.     Chid  and  trod  are  common  participial  forms. 

Bid,  "  to  command,"  has  sometimes  bid  in  both  preterite  and  past  par- 
ticiple ;  bid,  "  to  offer  money,"  has  these  forms  regularly. 

Begin,  drink,  ring,  shrink,  sing,  sink,  spring,  swim,  often  have  in 
poetry  a  w-form  (begun,  sung,  etc.)  in  the  preterite  as  well  as  in  the  past 
participle.  This  form  (though  good  old  English)  1  should  be  carefully 
avoided  in  modern  speech. 

Some  verbs  have  rare  or  archaic  weak  forms  alongside  of  the  strong 
forms.  Thus  shined,  preterite  and  past  participle  of  shine;  showed,  past 
participle  of  shoio. 

Ate  and  eaten  are  preferred  to  eat  (pronounced  et). 

Miscellaneous  archaisms  are  writ  for  wrote  and  written,  rid  for  rode 
and  ridden,  strewed  and  strown  for  strewn. 

Quoth,  "  said,"  is  an  old  strong  preterite.  The  compound  bequeath  has 
bequeathed  only. 

n. 

Strong  Terbs  and  Irregular  Weak  Verbs  having 
the  Preterite  and  the  Past  Participle  Alike. 

[The  strong  verbs  are  italicized.] 


RESENT 

Preterite  and 

Present 

Preterite  and 

Tense 

Past  Participle 

Tense 

Past  Participle 

abide 

abode 

bind 

bound 

behold 

beheld 

bleed 

bled 

bend 

bent 

breed 

bred 

bereave 

bereft,  bereaved 2 

bring 

brought 

beseech 

besought 

build 

built 

bet 

bet 

burst 

burst 

bid  (money) 

bid 

buy 

bought 

1  It  is  a  remnant  of  the  old  preterite  plural.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  the  principal 
parts  of  begin  were:  present,  beginne;  pret.,  began;  pret.  pi.,  begunnon ;  p.  p., 
begunnen. 

2  The  adjective  form  is  bereaved  :  as,  "  The  bereaved  father." 


;$yo 

THE 

MO  Til  EB    TUNG  UK. 

PRESENT 

Preterite  and 

Present 

Preterite  and 

Tense 

Past  PARTICIPLE 

Tense                   E 

ast  Participle 

cast 

cast 

lead 

led 

catch 

caught 

leave 

left 

cling 

clung 

lend 

lent 

cost 

cost 

let 

let 

creep 

crept 

light 

lighted  or  lit 4 

cut 

cut 

lose 

lost 

(leal 

dealt 

make 

made 

'/'.'/ 

dug 

mean 

meant 

dwell 

dwelt 

i 't 

met 

Iced 

fed 

pay 

paid 

feel 

felt 

put 

put 

Jig  Itt 

fought 

read 

rSad 

find 

found 

reave  (archaic) 

reft,  reaved 

flee 

fled 

reeve 

rove 

jling 

flung 

rend 

rent 

gel 

got1 

rid 

rid 

grind 

ground 

say 

said 

hung 

hung,  hanged2 

seek 

sought 

have 

had 

sell 

sold 

hear 

heard 

.send 

sent 

heave 

hove,  heaved  8 

set 

set 

hit 

hit 

shed 

shed 

hold 

held 

shine 

shone 

hurt 

hurt 

shoe 

shod 

keep 

kept 

shoot 

shot 

lay 

laid 

shut 

shut 

1  The  archaic  participle  gotten  is  used  in  the  compounds  begotten  and 
forgotten,  and  as  an  adjective  ( "ill-gotten  gains  "  ).  Many  good  speakers 
also  use  it  instead  ef  the  past  participle  got,  but  got  is  the  accepted  modern 
form. 

-  Hanged  is  used  only  of  execution  l>y  hanging. 

'■'■  Usage  varies  with  the  context.  We  say,  "  The  crew  hove  the  cargo 
overboard,"  but  not  "  She  hove  a  sigh." 

4  So  both  light,  "  to  kindle,"  and  light,  "  to  alight."  The  verb  alight 
has  usually  alighted  in  both  preterite  and  past  participle. 


APPENDIX. 

3 

'RESENT 

Preterite 

ANI> 

Present 

Preterite  and 

Tense 

Past  Participle 

Teh 

Past  Partk  iple 

sit 

sat 

stink 

stunk 

sleep 

slept 

string 

strung 

sling 

slung 

sweep 

swept 

slink 

slunk 

.  wing 

wung 

slit 

slit 

teach 

taught 

spend 

spent 

tell 

told 

spin 

spun 

think 

thought, 

spit 

spit 

thrust 

thrust 

split 

split 

wake 

woke,  waked 

spread 

.spread 

weep 

\\ept 

stand 

stood 

\\ct 

wel 

stave, 

stove,  staved 

win 

won 

stick 

stuck 

wind 

wound 

stiny 

slung 

wring 

wrung 

:>>u\ 


Observe  that  the  following  verbs  have  all  three  of  the  princi- 
pal parts  alike:  bet,  hurst,  rust,  rust,  cut,  hit,  hurt,  let,  put,  rid, 
shut,  slit,  spit,  split,  spread,  thrust,  wet. 

Bend,  beseech,  bet,  build,  burst,  catch,  dwell,  rend,  split,  wet,  I 
archaic  or  less  usual  forms  in  -ed  :  bended,  beseeched,  betted,  etc.    Builded 
is  common  in  the  proverbial  "  He  builded  better  than  be  knew."    Bursted 
is  common  as  an  adjective:  "  ;t  bursted  bubble." 

Miscellaneous  archaisms  are  the  preterites  sate  for  sat,  trode  for  trod, 
spat  for  spit. 

Dive  has  dived;  but  dove  (an  old  form;  is  common  in  America. 

Plead  has  preterite  and  past  participle  pleaded.  Plead  ''pronounced 
plSd)  is  avoided  by  careful  writers  and  speak' 

Blend,  leap,  lean,  have  usually  blended,  leaped,  leaned;  but  blent, 
leapt,  leant  are  not  uncommon. 

Clothe  has  commonly  clothr-d ;  but  dad  is  common  in  literary  use,  and 
is  regular  in  the  adjectives  well-clad,  ill-clad  <ior  which  ordinary  speech 
has  substituted  well-dressed,  badly  or  poorly  dressed). 

Prove  has  preterite  and  past  participle  proved.  The  past  participle 
proven  should  be  avoided. 

Work  has  preterite  and  past  participle  worked.  Wrought  in  the  preter- 
ite and  past  participle  is  archaic,  but  is  modern  as  an  adjective  (as  in 
wrought  iron/. 


392 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


III. 

The  following  verbs  vary  between  -ed  and  -t  (-d)  in  the 
preterite  and  the  past  participle.  In  some  of  them,  this 
variation  is  a  mere  difference  of  spelling ;  in  others  it 
implies  also  a  difference  in  pronunciation.  In  writing, 
the  -ed  forms  are  preferred  in  most  cases ;  in  speaking, 
the  -t  forms  (when  these  indicate  a  different  pronunci- 
ation) are  very  common. 


bless 

blessed,  blest l 

burn 

burned,  burnt 2 

curse 

cursed,  curst 1 

dare 

dared  (less  com.  durst) 

dream 

dreamed,  dreamt 

dress 

dressed,  drest 

gird 

girded,  girt2 

kneel 

kneeled,  knelt2 

knit 

knit,  knitted2 

learn 

learned,  learnt3 

pen,  shut  up 

penned,  pent2 

quit 

quitted,  quit2 

shred 

shredded,  shred2 

smell 

smelled,  smelt2 

speed 

sped,  speeded2 

spell 

spelled,  spelt 

spill 

spilled,  spilt2 

spoil 

spoiled,  spoilt 

stay- 

stayed,  staid 

sweat 

sweated,  sweat2 

wed 

wedded  (p.p.  also  wed)2 

1  The  adjectives  are  usually  pronounced  blessed,  cursed.    Compare  also 
the  adjective  accursed. 

2  Both  forms  are  in  good  use. 

3  Both  forms  are  in  good  use.    The  adjective  is  pronounced  learned. 


APPENDIX. 


393 


IV. 


The  following  verbs  have  regular  -ed  forms  in  modern 
prose,  but  in  poetry  and  the  high  style  sometimes  show 
archaic  forms.  Only  the  modern  forms  should  be  used 
in  ordinary  speech  and  writing. 


Present 
Tense 

Preterite 
Tense 

Past  Participle 

crow 

crowed,  crew 

crowed,  crown 

freight 

freighted 

freighted,  fraught  (figurative) 

grave 

graved 

graved,  graven 

engrave 

engraved 

engraved,  engraven 

mow 

mowed 

mowed,  mown 

sew 

sewed 

sewed,  sewn 

shape 

shaped 

shaped,  shapen 

shear 

sheared,  shore 

sheared,  shorn 

wax 

waxed 

waxed,  waxen 

V. 


Defective  Verbs. 


The  present  tense  of  may,  can,  shall,  is  an  old  strong  preterite. 
Hence  the  first  and  third  persons  singular  are  alike  :  —  /  may, 
he  may.  The  actual  preterites  of  these  verbs  are  weak  forms :  — 
might,  could,  should.  Must  is  the  weak  preterite  of  an  obsolete 
mot,  and  is  almost  always  used  as  a  present  tense  (§  546). 

Dare  and  owe  originally  belonged  to  this  class.  Owe  has  become 
a  regular  weak  verb,  except  for  the  peculiar  preterite  ought,  which 
is  used  in  a  present  sense  (see  §  548)  ;  dare  has  in  the  third  per- 
son dare  or  dares,  and  in  the  preterite  dared,  more  rarely  durst. 
The  archaic  wot  "know,"  preterite  wist,  also  belongs  to  this  class. 
Will  is  inflected  like  shall,  having  will  in  the  first  and  third  sin- 
gular and  would  in  the  preterite. 


394  THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 

CONJUGATION    OF   THE   VERB    TO  BE. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD 

Present  Tense 


Singular                                      Plural 

1. 

I  am.                                         We  are. 

2. 

Thou  art.                                  You  are. 

3. 

He  is.                                        They  are. 

Preterite  Tense 

1. 

I  was.                                       We  were. 

2. 

Thou  wast  (wert).                 You  were. 

3. 

He  was.                                   They  were. 

Future  Tense 

1. 

I  shall  be.                                 We  shall  be. 

2. 

Thou  wilt  be.                           You  will  be. 

3. 

He  will  be.                               They  will  be. 

Perfect  Tense 

1. 

I  have  been.                            We  have  been. 

2. 

Thou  hast  been                       You  have  been. 

3. 

He  has  been.                           They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense 

1. 

I  had  been.                             We  had  been. 

2. 

Thou  hadst  been.                   You  had  been. 

3. 

He  had  been.                          They  had  been. 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

1. 

I  shall  have  been.                  We  shall  have  been. 

2. 

Thou  wilt  have  been.            You  will  have  been. 

3. 

He  will  have  been.                 They  will  have  been. 

APPENDIX.  395 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD 
Present  Tense 

Singular  Plural 

1.  If  I  be.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  thou  be.  If  you  be. 

3.  .If  he  be.  If  they  be. 

Preterite  Tense 

1.  If  I  were.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  thou  wert.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  were.  If  they  were. 

Future  Tense 

1.  If  I  shall  be.  If  we  shall  be. 

2.  If  thou  shalt  be.  If  you  shall  be. 

3.  If  he  shall  be.  If  they  shall  be. 

Perfect  Tense 

1.  If  I  have  been.  If  we  have  been. 

2.  If  thou  have  been.  If  you  have  been. 

3.  If  he  have  been.  If  they  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense 

1.  If  I  had  been.  If  we  had  been. 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been.  If  you  had  been. 

3.  If  he  had  been.  If  they  had  been. 

Future  Perfect  Tense 

1.  If  I  shall  have  been.  If  we  shall  have  been. 

2.  If  thou  shalt  have  been.  If  you  shall  have  been. 

3.  If  he  shall  have  been.  If  they  shall  have  been. 

Imperative  Mood.     Present.     Sing,  and  PL     Be  [thou  or  you]. 
Infinitive.     Present,  to  be  ;  perfect,  to  have  been. 
Participles.     Present,  being;  past,  been;  perfect,  having  been. 


SYNOPSIS 

OF  THE 

FORMS  AND  RELATIONS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 
With  a  Summary  of  the  Lessons  in  Composition. 


[Figures  at  the  left  refer  to  pages,  those  at  the  right  in  heavy  type  to  sections. 
The  abbreviation  f .  means  "  and  following  page  "  ;  if.  means  "  and  following 
pages"] 


ADJECTIVES. 


37  Defined 

76,77 

CLASSES. 

132 
53 
89 
37 
97 

263 

41  Articles 

42      definite 

84 

indefinite 

85 

special  rules 

86,87 

39  Descriptive 

79 

106 

proper 

80 

97 

place  and  number 

79 

127 

200  Numeral 

369 

cardinal 

371 

227 

used  as  nouns 

373,  374 

ordinal 

372 

120 
121 

single,  double,  etc. 

375 

Pronominal 

190     Demonstrative 

351 

297 
120 

192        inflection 

352 

194     Indefinite 

354,  355 

all,  few,  many,  etc. 

357  N. 

296 

276     Interrogative 

530, 531 

68 

274     Relative 

522,  523 

double  construction 

523 

120 
75 

INFLECTION. 

188 

174  Comparison 

321,  322 

89 

187  f.  Comparative  and  Superlative 

87 

175  Degrees 

323-326 

123 

178  Forms 

330 

168 

Analytical,  more,  most 

329 

169 

175      Inflectional,  -er,  -est 

327 

264 

176          spelling 

32S 

86 

180      Irregular 

332, 335 

85 

183      no  comparison 

336 

280 

178     two  forms 

331,  333 

SYNTAX. 


223 

101 

153 

77 

167, 168 

501  f. 

178 

169  f. 

217 

216 

428 
204 
207 
206 
577-579 


ADJECTIVE  MODIFIERS 

Adjectives 
Appositive 
Attributive 
Predicate 
as  pred.  objectives 
modified  bow 
verbs  witb 
Adjective  used  as  noun 
noun         "     "  adjective 
participle,    its    adjective 
properties 
Adjective  Clauses 
antecedent 
as  relative  clauses 

time  and  place 
compared  witb  adjectives 

and  pbrases  205 

subordinate  clauses  675 

Adjective  Phrases  121,  122 

compared  with  adjectives       123 

"  "      clauses  204 

as  modifiers  132 

with  more  and  most  347 

Appositive  150,  151 

Apposition  149 

Appositive  clauses,  see  Nouns. 

case  of  appositive  310 

genitive  (possessive)  312 

predicate  obj.,  distinguished  502 

Genitive  (Possessive)  145,  146 

0/-phrase  143 

Infinitive  537, 540 

Possessive,  see  Genitive. 


397 


398 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


ADVERBS 

• 

48  Defined 

91 

SYNTAX. 

45      modifying  verbs 

88 

132  ADVERBIAL  MODIFIERS 

224 

47              "        adjectives 

89 

53  Adverbs 

101 

48              ' '         adverbs 

90,  96 

56 

Adverbial  suffix 

106 

51  Derived  from  adjectives 

II 

116  Adverbial  Clauses 

19* 

129  Form  like  adjectives 

218 

115 

analysis 

195 

197 

298      "        "     conjunctions 

581  N. 

116 

with  adverbs 

199 

130      "        "     prepositions 
129  historical  note 

219 

218  N. 

with  conjunctions 
295  f.  subordinate  clauses 

200 

poetical  use 

218  N. 

298 

Cause 

580 

581 

302 

Comparison 

597 

599 

CLASSES. 

298 

Concession 

582 

583 

290 

with  indie,  and  subj. 

563 

49  Meaning 

92 

301 

Condition 

591 

594 

Degree 

96 

290 

with  subjunctive 

564 

Manner 

93 

302 

Degree 

599 

Place 

95 

Manner 

597  >'. 

Time 

94 

297 

Place  and  time 

577 

50      same  adverb  in  different 

how  introduced 

579 

classes 

97 

299 

Purpose                    585 

586 

58S 

52      test  for  distinguishing 

VI  N. 

281 

infinitive  phrase 

538 

589 

274  Conjunctive 

525 

312 

tenses 

622 

277  Interrogative 

532 

291 

with  subjunctive 

568 

307      in  indirect  questions 

609 

299 

Result                       585 

587 

588 

296      "  subordinate  clauses 

574 

;;m 

with  infinitive 

589 

200  Numeral 

368 

297 

Time 

577 

202      once,  tivice,  etc. 

376 

how  introduced 

579 

274  Relative 

524 

71  Adverbial  Phrases 

124 

132 

as  connectives 

525 

310 

Classed,   see    Phrases, 

296      list  of 

574 

p.  402. 

121      Relative  clauses      206, 

578,579 

281 

infinitive  as  adv.  phrase 

72 

of  degree 

128 

"  time  and  place 

126 

127 

INFLECTION. 

7'.'i 

rule 

129 

184  Comparison  (see  Adjectives)      337 

idioms 

130 

Analytical,  more,  most 

338 

noun  phrase 

131 

Inflectional,  -cr,  -est 

339 



185      irregular 

340-342 

two  forms 

341 

Analysis,  see  Sentences. 

no  comparison 

342 

Appositives,  see  Adjectives. 

1.S7      Comparative,  Superlative        343 

Articles,         "           " 

distinguished 

344 

Aii.ciliitrirs,  see  Vcrhs. 

idioms 

345 

Case  Relations,  see  Syntax  of 

historical  note 

345 

Nouns  and  Verbs. 

188  Double  comparison 

346 

piore,most  with  adj.  phras 

e        347 

SYNOPSIS. 


399 


CLAUSES. 


113  Defined 

190 

133  Elements  of 

230 

301 

Compound 

230 

309 

113, 114  Coordinate 

193 

122 

115  Dependent 

195 

121 

113, 115  Independent 

133 

133  Subordinate 

229 

296 

'.396      Classified 

576 

120        Adjective,  p. 

397 

115         Adverbial,  p. 

398 

Appositive,  p.  402 

Conditional,  p.  404 

Infinitive,  p.  406 

Noun  or  Substantive,  p.  402 

Relative,  p.  297 
Dependence  229 

Introduced  how  574 

See  Conjunctions,  p.  401. 
"    Pronouns  and  Adverbs. 


COMPOSITION. 


319  Introduction 
363  Antithesis- 

824  Antonyms  vi,  vn 

380 f.  Business   Forms,  drafts, 
notes,  etc. 
Business  Letters,  see  below. 
377  f.        "         Transactions 
319  f .,  342  clearness 
344  Comparison 

357  Conclusion  lxiii,  lxiv 

332  f .  Condensed  Expression 

359  connectives 

319,  325  Constructive  vin 

363  Contrast 

336  Conversation,  written  xx 

xxii         "  spoken 

criticism  of  literary  style,  see 
pp.  335-338,  340-343,  348,  358. 
342  Description;  also  pp. 349, 352, 
356,357 

Discourse,  continued      vm,  xxvi 
304         "  Indirect  602,603 

360  Emphasis 
361-363  methods 
328     See  Variety. 

328  Equivalent  Constructions 

329  Ana'ysis  xm 
332      condensation                           xvn 

infinitives  xvi 

nominative  absolute  XI 

participles  xm,  xv 

phrases  XI,  xv 

See  throughout  the  book. 
355  Introduction 


356  in  Description 

355  "  Narration 

357  omitted 

356  Proportion 
365  Letter  Writing 
365-368  Analysis 

Exercises,  pp.  372-378 
368      Form 
372         address  or  direction 

371  body  of  letter 
close 

370         heading 
salutation 

372  signature 
367  f .  Business  letters 

374  Exercises 
370         form 
372      Descriptive  letters 
365,  367  Familiar 

375  Formal 
372      Friendly 

375  ff.  Invitations  and  Replies 

376  Social 

379      Telegrams 

Literature,  studies  in,  pp.  321, 
334, 337, 339-343, 347-349, 351- 
355,  357,  358,  3G5 

342  Narration,  also  pp. 353-355, 357 

319  obscurity,  ambiguity, etc. 

345  Oral  Composition 

294  organizing  thought;  see  Para- 
graph and  Sentence. 

334  Paragraphs 

341      Arrangement  XXXII] 


VI 
in 
IV 

i 
ii 

V 

III 

II,  IV 


IV,  VII 

I,  II 


400 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Composition,  Paragraphs  (con- 
tinued) 
338      coherence  xxv 

357  Conclusion 

358  caution 

Exercises  xvin-xxxv 

355-357  Introduction 
338      sequence  XXVI 

337      stanza 
358  f.  Transition 

335  f .  Unity   xxi,  xxm,  xxxiii-xxxv 
363  Parallelism 
3G3  Repetition 

352  Reproduction  lvi-lix  ; 

also  xxm,  xxvii 
325  Sentences,  see  p.  404. 
341      Arrangement         xxxiii,  xxxiv 
341      coherence  xxxm  (2) 

360  tf.  Emphasis 

328  Equivalents,  see  above. 
Exercises,  pp.  326-333, 350, 360-363 

350  Forms,  Effectiveness  of  de- 
clarative, interrogative,  etc. 

294  independent  and  complex  ; 
see  Equivalents  and  Va- 
riety ;  also  p.  327. 

347-349  length  ;  also  p.  133,  231 

361  order 

329  Structure,  see  p.  404. 
294  f .  Thought  in  sentence 
358  f .  Transition 

325      Unity  vm 

328      Variety  ;  also  pp.  347-350 

311  Sequence  of  Tenses 

338,  341     "  "  Thought 

337  Stanza 

328  f .  Style 

xxii    colloquial,  pp.  199,  319 

332  condensation 

333  use  of 
333      expansion 

xvii    good  style  and  grammar 

328      monotony 

166     o/-phrase  309 

xxii    poetical ;   also  pp.  129,  154, 

166,  184,  199,  202,  287 
347  f .  Smoothness 
xxii    solemn 
328  f.  Variety;  also  pp.  347,348-350 


322  Synonyms  rv,  v,  x 

328  Syntax,  freedom  in 
320  Technique  ;  also  pp.  365,  371 
320  Thought ;  also  p.  144 

Topics    from    environment, 
pp.  338,  340,  345  f. 

358  Transition 

359  "  means  of 

326  Unity  in  Composition ;  also  p.  341 

xvi  Usage 

129      adverbs  N. 

xx       changes 

216      collective  nouns  406 

179      comparison 

149      compound  nouns 

143      gender 

166      genitives 

xvii    Idioms,        130,  345,  497  n.,  571 

234      infinitive  441 

260      nominative  absolute  494 

141      Personification  262-254 

149      plurals 

252      progressive  N. 

270      relatives  512-516 

199      self-pronouns 

287      subjunctive  554 

183,  187  superlatives 

328  Variety 

349  in  description 

350  "  sentences 
347  f .  in  style 

320  Words,  see  Style  and  Usage. 
321-325  Analysis 

324      Antonyms  VI,  VII 

xix,  xxii  archaic  ;  pp.  129,  386  If. 
xix     changes 
322      definitions  N. 

360  Emphasis 
xvi,  xxi  forms 
xix      new 

xix,  xxii  obsolete 

361  Order 

125  parts  of  speech  alike 
xiv  relations,  how  shown 
xx       Slang 

322  Synonyms  iv,  v 

321  Use  of  words  ii-vn 

323  "     "   Dictionary 
320      Vocabulary 


SYNOPSIS. 


401 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


59  as  connectives  107 

113  Clauses  190,  195 

59  Defined  108 

60  list  110 
prepositions  distinguished  111 

59  use  109  f. 

CLASSES. 

132  Coordinate  228 

108      use  182,  186,  187 

114  with  coordinate  clauses  193,  194 
108  Correlative  182  n. 


328  Equivalent  Constructions, p.  399 

Infinitives,  p.  406 
136  Inflections,  Summary 


304  Indirect  Discourse 
constructions 
introduced 


602 
604 
601 


116  Subordinate 

296 

122 

289 


304 
307 


200 

in  subordinate  clauses,  list  574 
that  in  noun  clause  210 

"      "  subjunctive  561 

though,  concession  563,  583 

if,  unless,  condition  564,  594 
as,  as  if,  than,  comparison  599 
that,  lest, before, purpose  568,586 
because,  since,  cause  581 

so  that,  result  587 

that,  indirect  discourse  601 

whether,  if,  question  609 


Interjections 

63  Defined 
132      in  analysis 

64  list 

Modal  Auxiliaries,  p.  406 
Modifiers,  see  Sentences. 


113,  114 
226 
116 


NOUNS. 


4  Denned 

11 

164 

genitive  plural 

304 

305 

11  Substantives 

29 

nouns  ending  in  s 

306  f. 

CLASSES. 

21 

Nominative 

51 

7  Abstract 

19 

157 

Objective 

286, 

287 

8  Collective 

21 

Possessive,  see  Genitive. 

sometimes  proper 

22 

33 

Vocative 

71 

•216      singular  or  plural 

405, 

406 

138  Gender 

246 

247 

4  Common 

IS 

!,  14 

141 

Special  rules 

251 

-258 

148  Compound 

268 

Personification 

252 

-254 

149      how  written 

269 

77  NUMBEI 

133 

134 

148      plural 

268 

78 

singular,  plural 

135 

195  Indefinite 

357 

145 

rules 

260 

261 

4  Proper 

12,13 

146 

Irregular  plurals 

237  Verbal  (p.  402) 

443 

445 

147 

foreign 

266 

6  groups  of  words 

16 

146 

in  -en 

262 

8  single  words 

23 

149 

no  plural 
"  singular 

270 
271 

INFLECTION. 

146 

same  form  as  singula! 

r 

264 

136  Declension                   238 

239, 

241 

148 

single  letters,  etc. 

267 

157  CASE  (Syntax,  p.  402) 

283, 

284 

149 

singular  sense 

272 

80     Genitive  or  Possessive 

137 

138 

215 

verb  with 

403 

apostrophe 

140 

150 

titles,  Mr.,  etc. 

273 

81         forms 

139 

140 

147 

two  plurals 

265 

163         historical  note 

146 

vowel  changed 

263 

402 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Nouns  (continued) 

SYNTAX. 

217  Agreement  of  Verb  411 

Person  4 OS,  409 

87  Appositives  149 

168  case  of  310 
Appositive  clauses,  pp.  123, 

300,305 
89  Appositive  phrases,  p.  397 

CASE  RELATIONS,  see  pp.  406, 407. 
163     Genitive  or  Possessive  299 

86         analysis 

169  appositive  312, 313 
85          0/-phrase  144 

166  uses  308, 309 

usedforliving beings  307,and>\ 
Nominative  285 

as  subject  of  sentence  51 

Absolute  492-494 


157 

21 
259 
260 

33 
161 

99 
159 
157 

90 
170 
263  f, 

309 


66 

113 

75 

^—68 

71 

89 

224 

65 


55 

60 

56 

278 


without  participle  495 

Direct  Address  7 1 

Exclamatory  297 

compared  with  vocative  298 
Predicate  Nominative         171 

rule  289 

Objective  286 

Direct  object  156 

Indirect  object  314-320 

Predicate   Objective  (or 

Objective  Attribute)  499-502 
Subject  of  infinitive  612 


Possessive,  see  Genitive. 
33     Vocative  70-74 

33  analysis  74 
161         compared  with  exclama- 
tory nominative                 298 

34  with  imperative  73 
278  Infinitive,  used  as  noun  533 
127  Nouns  and  adjectives  215,  217. 
201  Numerals  373, 374 
125  Nouns  in  form  like  verbs           214 

121  Noun  as  antecedent  207 

122  Noun  Clauses  208 
133  Substantive  clauses  229 
122      as  subject                          209,  604 

"  object  211,  588,  604 

"  pred.  nom.  211,  588,  604 

Appositive  clause   211,588,604 

304      in  Indirect  Discourse      602,  604 

308      "        "  Questions 

299      Purpose  or  result  588  f . 

122      with  that  210 

65  Noun  Phrases  118,  119 

73      as  adverbs  131 

237  Verbal  Nouns  443 

238  construction  445 

239  like  Infinitives  448 

237  distinguished  fr.  participles  444 
239      equivalents  447 

238  historical  note 

252      instead  of  Progressive  479 

238      with  adj.  and  adv.  446  (2) 

"     object  446  (1) 


PHRASES. 


Defined  119 

distinguished  from  clauses  190 
as  modifiers  132 

Adjective,  p.  397 

Adverbial,  p.  398 

Appositive,  p.  397 

infinitive,  p.  406 

Noun  or  Substantive  (above) 

Prepositional  (below) 


14 
316 
317 


316 


Verb  Phrases,  p.  406 

Classified 

Accompaniment  633 

Agency  631 

Instrument  or  Means  632 

Limit  of  Motion  630 

Place  from  which  629 

"       to         "  630 

"       in         "  628 


PREPOSITIONS. 


Defined  103 

distinguished  from  Conj's.      Ill 
object  of  104,  105 

Infinitive  as  object  536 


68  Phrases,  Adjective                   122 

73  "        Adverbial                    130 

316  Classified,  see  Phrases,  above. 

56  Suffixes,  adverbial                    106 


SYNOPSIS. 


403 


PRONOUNS. 


10 

Defined 

25 

267 

list 

505 

11 

Substantives 

29 

268 

Number 

508 

121 

Antecedent 

207 

269 
268 

omitted 
Person 

511 

509 

CLASSES. 

Adjective  Pronouns,  see  Pro- 
nominal Adjectives,  p.  397. 
274  Conjunctive,  see  Relative. 
190  Demonstrative                  348 
192      Inflection                          352 

525 
349 
353 

271 

272 

punctuation 
Restrictive 
that,  and  ivho,  which 
what,  that  which 
antecedent 
Self-Pronouns,  see  Personal. 

515 
514 
516 
517 
518 

194  Indefinite 

195  one,  one's 

354 
357 

GENERAL  RULES 

276  Interrogative 

307      indirect  questions 

276      Inflection 

526 

527 
609 

528 

For  special  rules  of  Inflect 
and  Syntax,  see  Classes 

ion 

27 
276 

interrogative  sentence 
wliom 

65 
529 

87 
1GS 

Appositives 
case  of 

148, 
310, 

149 
311 

152  Personal 

274 

157 

Case 

283 

196 

Compound  (Self-Pronouns) 
Intensive             360, 364 

358 

365 

84 

Genitive 
predicate  forms 

141 

142 
142 

197 

construction 
Reflexive 

362 

361 
366 

157 
161 

Nominative 
in  exclamations 

285 

287 
296 

199 
154 

construction 
with  oicn 
Gender  and  Number 

279 

362 
363 

,281 

29 
157 
171 

"  imperative 
Objective 
indirect  object 

6( 

286 

5,67 

287 
318 

153 

Inflection 

278 

84 

Possessive,  see  Genitiv* 

152 

Person 

275 

159 

Predicate  Nominative 

289 

classes 
154      use  of  thou  and  you 
278        "    "  it  as  Expletive 
84  Possessive 

280 

276 
281 
535 
142 

105 

159 
263 

;;in 

compared  with  object 

pronouns 
Predicate  Objective 
Predicate  pronoun 

290 

176 
292 
500 
615 

117 

Relative 

202 

13S  Gender 

247 

267 

agreement 
Antecedent 

504 
503 

139 
143 

agreement 

hi\  it,  for  animals 

24  S 

249 
255 

268 

Case 

510 

144 

it  and  his 

257 

258 

121 
296 

Clauses 
introduced 

574 

206 

578 

139 
141 

pronoun  forms 
Personification 

252 

250 
25 1 

273 

of  place  and  time 
Compound 
antecedent 

578 
519 
521 

143 

special  words,  pp.  136 

153  N. 
irlio,  which 

ST., 

256 

inflection 

520 

78  Number 

134 

135 

271 
272 

Descriptive 
Double  construction 

518 

514 
521 

213 

•J17 

agreement 
Person 

399 
408 

400 

409 

268 
267 

Gender 
inflection 

507 

512 
505 

agreement 
219  Personal  Endings 

414 

411 
417 

404 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


SENTENCES. 


325 

See  Composition,  p.  400. 

ANALYSIS. 

311 

"    Sequence  of  Tenses 

,p.407 

22 

Defined 

52 

21 

Defined 

51 

134  Form  of  Analysis 

131  Structure  of  sentences 

CLASSES. 

Subject  and  Predicate 

221 

300  Conditional 

591 

21 

complete  and  simple 

48,49 

301 

apodosis 

592 

23 

copula 

conditional  clause 

591 

594 

108- 

110  simple 

181,  185 

form  and  order 

592 

595 

compound     181,  183, 

186,  188 

main  clause 

593 

132 

Modifiers  (seepp.53,75,86,89)  222 

negative 

596 

Adjective,  p.  397 

223 

protasis 

592 

Adverbial,  p.  398 

224 

18  Declarative 

44 

Complementary  elements       225 

31 

Exclamatory 

69 

106 

predicate  adj.  and  nom. 

161 

Nominative 

296  n. 

94 

direct  object 

161 

276 

with  what 

531 

170 

indirect  object 

314-320 

29 

Imperative 

67 

263 

predicate  objective 

499-502 

30 

prohibition 

II 

162 

Exclamatory  Nominative          IV 

29 

subject 

66 

63 

Interjection 

115 

34 

with  Vocative 

73 

34 

Vocative 

74 

265 

See  Imperative  Mood. 

132  Sentences 

227-230 

25 

Interrogative 

61 

17 

Simple  or  Independent 

42 

27 

do  in  predicate 

64 

113 

Independent 

191,  195 

276 

Interrogative  pronouns 

etc. 

Compound 

189-194 

307 

Introduced  how 

609 

114 

Coordinate  clauses 

193 

27 

order 

63-65 

115 

Complex 

195,  196 

241 

with  shall  and  will  452 

453 

456 

115 

Main  clause 

195 

284 

"    may  and  can 

544 

133 

Subordinate  Clauses 

229 

306 

Direct  Questions 

606 

609 

296 

Classed,  p.  399 

306 

Indirect       " 

607 

609 

133 

Compound  clauses 

230 

307 

dependence 

608 

Elements  of  clauses 

230 

not  relative  clauses 

610 

Compound  Complex 

231  (2) 

VERBS. 


13  Denned 

32,33 

CLASSES. 

14  Auxiliary,  p.  405 

35 

23  Copula,  Be 

55,56 

394  f .  conjugated 

310      in  infinitive  clause 

615 

287       "  subjunctive 

554,555 

"  verb  phrases,  p.  406 

97      with  predicate  adjective 

169 

99         "           "          nominative      171 

393  Defective 

v 

90  Intransitive  156,  n 

159      See  Predicate  Nominative.     291 


206  Irregular  (Strong) 

385t 

Regular  (Weak) 

385t 

Strong,  see  Preterite,  p.  405. 

90  Transitive 

156,1 

92      also  Intransitive 

157 

used  Absolutely 

158 

Intransitive  distinguished 

159 

170      two  objects 

315 

Weak,  see  Preterite,  p.  405. 

SYNOPSIS. 


405 


Verbs  (continued) 


INFLECTION. 

220  Conjugation 

420 

224  Infinitive,  p.  406 

137  MOOD  or  MODE 

244 

255     Imperative 

483 

conjugated 

484, 485 

256         Emphatic 

487 

289  Exhortations,  let  us  562 

255  form  like  Indicative  485 

256  Negative  490, 491 
29         sentences  66 

256         subject  of  488, 489 

34         Vocative  with  73 

137      Indicative  244 

246         conjugated  463  f . 

251         Progressive  474,477 

291         used  for  Subjunctive  569 

290  "     in  concessions  663 
283      Potential,. p.  406  543 

287  Subjunctive  553, 554 

conjugated  555 

if,  use  explained  555 

288  form  like  Indicative  556  n. 
Future  559 
Preterite  555, 558 
Progressive  558 

289  Syntax,  p.  407 

219  NUMBER  413,  414,  415 

213      agreement  400 
226  Participles,  p. 407 
217  PERSON                        408,  409,  411 

219  Personal  Endings  414,  418 

236  Principal  parts  442 

204  TENSE  377 

Simple  379 
246         conjugated 
249      Compound,  or  Complete  467-473 

240  Future  449 

241  conjugated 

240          formed  how  450 

242  shall,  will,  p.  406  453,  456 
249     Future  Perfect  470 

Past,  see  Preterite. 
Past  Perfect  or  Pluperfect     469 

Perfect  468 

Pluperfect  469 


205  Present  381 
246         conjugated 

219  Personal  Endings  414,418 

205  Preterite  or  Past  382 

220  conjugated  421 
233         errors  in  form 

219         Personal  Endings  416,418 

206  formed,  classed  3S3,  386 

208  Strong  or  Irregular 

formed  387 

importance  of  388 

386  f .         lists 

206        Weak  or  Regular  384 

209  Endings  in  d  and  ed  390,391 
exceptions  391,392 

210  Endings  in  t  393-396 

211  like  present  398 
no  endings  397 

392            two  endings  ill 

389             "  Irregular  Weak "  II 

211         Weak  and  Strong  398,  N. 
historical  notes,  pp.  206, 
211,  386  f . 

251  f.  Progressive  form  475 

conjugated  477 

252  Passive  4/8 
288             Subjunctive  558 

95  VOICE  163-165 

96  Active  165 
246         conjugated 

248         made  passive  465 

245  Passive  460 
248         active  made  passive  464,  465 

246  conjugated 

250         Compound  or  Complete       473 

245  formed  how  462 
255         Imperative  486 

246  Indicative  463 
248  intransitives,  no  passive  466 
252  Progressive  478 
252  -dng  phrase  479 
248  subject  of  465 
288         Subjunctive  557 

SYNTAX. 

14  AUXILIARIES  defined  34,  86 

place  36 

Verb  Phrases  34 


40G 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Verb  Phrases  (continued) 
Classes,  with  Auxiliaries 
249     Compound  or  Complete 
tenses,  Have 
Emphatic 

Do,  forms 
Future 

Shall  and  Will 
inflection 
Errors  in  use 
questions 
shall,  subjunctive 
shall,  command 
will,  willingness 

453,  456,  559 

Interrogative,  Do  6* 

Modal  Auxiliaries  in  Poten- 
tial  Phrases  »** 

inflections  (see  p.  393)   o43,  »5- 


253 


240 


288 
243 
242 


283 


467 
481 
482,  487 
449 
450 
451,452 
452-457 
453,456 
559 
457 


538  t. 

also  589 

589 


280-281  complementary 
281      infinitive  of  purpose  ; 
3Q0  «  "  result 

234      modifiers  of 

223  noun,  properties  of 

224  historical  note 
234      object  of  Infinitive 
309      subject  of       " 
278      used  as  a  Noun 

as  subject 
l  "  object 

8  "  pred.  nom.  after  it 
"  object  of  preposition 

used  in  Verb  Phrases,  p.  406 
i3         emphatic 
10         future 
33         potential 

09  Infinitive  Clauses  611'"" 
equivalent  to  noun  clause 


439 
425 

440 
612 
533 
534 

N. 

535 
536 

481 
450 
542 


312 
291 

284 


291 

284 


285 


256 
245 
283 
251 

252 
288 


Sequence,  p.  407 
used  for  Subjunctive 
Can,  ability 
May,  permission 
»      possibility 
"      purpose 
Must,  necessity 
Omjht,  obligation 
never  with  had 
Should 
Would 
Negative,  Do 


621 
569 
544 
544 
545 
569 
546 
548,  549 
550 
651,  552,  569 
552,  561 
490 
462 


Passive,  Be  (Copula,  p.  404) 
potential,  see  Modal. 

Progressive,  Be  *'6'  *" 

„      .  4<  8 

Passive 

Subjunctive  °° 

301  CONDITIONAL  CLAUSES  591-594 

See  Sentences,  p.  404. 

290      with  Subjunctive  &6 

222  INFINITIVES  ***>  *"* 

224      defined 

328-331  Equivalents 


subject  of 
310         verbs  governing 
construction 
predicate  pronouns 
without  to 
90  OBJECT 

262  Cognate 

case  of 

distinguished  from  direct    49b 

263  Complementary  object       600  n 
„.  156, 161 

91     Direct  > 

157         case  of 

934         infinitives  with  ob3ect  44U 

infin.  clause  as    '  612,614 


612 
614 
614  N. 
615 
616 
154 
497 
497 


223  Sign  of,  to 

240  omitted 

234  rule 

222  Syntax  of 

280  as  modifier 

281  of  noun  and  adj 

"  verbs 


424, 426 
450,481,542,616 
441 
424 
537 
540 
639 


participles  with  " 
reflexive  pro.  as  " 
Substantive  clause 
transitive  verbs 
unexpressed 
Indirect 
case  of 
place  of 
recognized  how 
verbs  with 
without  direct  object 
with  reflexive  pronoun 
Objective  attribute 
Predicate  Objective 
with  noun 
"    adjective 


440 
362 
211 
156 
159 
315 
318 
317 
319 
316 
320 
362 
500  >'. 
500 
499 
501 


SYNOPSIS. 

4 

Verbs  (continued) 

217 

Agreement  of  verb  411 

414, 

264 

Appositive  distinguished     502 

213 

Number 

266 

in  passive 

V 

216 

collective  nouns 

310 

"  infinitive  clause 

615 

analysis  of  rule 

226  PARTICIPLES 

427 

215 

compound  subj. 

401, 

adjective,  like  an 

428 

nouns  sing,  in  sense 

"         verbal 

428  n. 

historical  notes 

402, 

231 

preterite  distinguished 

217 

Person 

328  f .  Equivalents 

122 

Substantive  clause 

233 

errors  in  use 

311 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 

234 

modified  how 

439 

312 

definition 

62 

object  of 

440 

311 

principle 

230 

Past  Participle 

universal  truth, present  619, 

249 

compound  tenses 

467,473 

312 

with  modal  auxiliaries 

230 

form 

435 

may,  might,  should 

Regular  or  Weak 

436 

313 

can,  will,  shall 

232 

Irregular  or  Strong 

437 

could,  would,  should 

changes  in 

438 

after  wish 

386 

lists 

i-rv 

must 

245 

Passive,  use  in 

462 

291 

as  if 

255 

"        Imperative 

486 

290, 

291  concession,  condition 

563- 

230 

Preterite  compared 

436,437 

285 

ought 

249 

Perfect  Participle 

471 

289  SUBJUNCTIVE 

229 

Present  Participle 

430 

302 

Comparison 

597, 

251 

progressive  form,  used  in    476 

290 

Concession 

229 

time  of 

431-433 

Condition 

237 

verbal    nouns    dist 

in- 

301 

conditional  clauses 

guished 

443 

290 

doubt 

283  POTENTIAL  PHRASES 

541-543 

287 

if 

See  Modal  Auxiliaries 

P- 

290 

supposition  not  a  fact 

406. 

tenses 

20  PREDICATE 

47,48 

291 

without  if 

97  Predicate  Adjective 

16S 

with  as  if 

verbs  with 

169  f. 

289 

Exhortation,  poetry 

159  Predicate  Nominative 

2S9 

let  us,  in  prose 

101 

direct  object  compared 

172,  173 

292 

for  would  be  and  would  h 

We 

278 

infinitive  as 

535 

been 

310 

infinitive  clause  compai 

ed      615 

had  rather,  etc. 

160 

passive  verbs 

293 

289 

may  and  would 

56 

with  as 

294 

291 

Purpose 

102 

rule 

175 

replaced  by  indicative  and 

123 

substantive  clause 

211 

potential 

159 

verbs  with 

291,295 

289 

use  is  declining 

Predicate    Objective, 

see 

Wishes  and  prayers 

under  Object 

VERB   PHRASES,  see   A 

ux- 

21 

SUBJECT 

48,51 

iliaries,  pp.  405,  406. 

157 

case  of 

285 

21 

as  simple  predicate 

407 

,415 
400 
405 
406 
402 
403 

,403 
410 
208 

20  N. 
618 
625 
621 
622 

623 
624 
626 
567 
-569 
548 

59S 
563 
564 
591 
565 
555 
565 
565 
566 
567 
562 
562 

570 

571 

SI  K. 

568 

569 
560 
561 


49 


INDEX. 


[For  Synopsis  of  Classes,  Inflections,  and  Syntax,  see  p.  397. 
The  references  below  are  to  pages;  f.  signifies  "  and  following  page  " ; 
ff.  signifies  "  and  following  pages."] 


A  or  an,  41  ff. 

Ablative  absolute,  260,  note. 

Abstract  nouns,  7  ff. ;  personifica- 
tion, 141  f. 

Accompaniment,  316  ff. 

Active  voice.     See  Voice. 

Adjective  clauses,  120  f.,  133; 
phrases,  68  ff.,  75;  pronouns, 
190  ff.,  274  ff. ;  modifiers,  53  f., 
68  ff.,  75,  86,  89,  281  f. 
Synopsis,  397. 

Adjectives,  37  ff. ;  descriptive, 
etc.,  39  ff.  ;  attributive,  37 ; 
appositive,  89 ;  articles,  41  ff.  ; 
numeral,  39,  200  ff.  ;  proper, 
39 ;  demonstrative,  190  ff.  ;  in- 
definite, 194  f.  ;  relative,  274  ; 
interrogative,  276  f.  ;  predicate, 
97  ff.  ;  nouns  as  adjectives,  ad- 
jectives as  nouns,  127 ;  com- 
parison, 174  ff.     Synopsis,  397. 

Adverbial  clauses,  1 1 6, 1 33, 295  ff. ; 
phrases,  71  ff. ;  classified,  310  ff. ; 
modifiers,  75,  132,  281,  295  ff. 
Synopsis,  398. 


Adverbs,  45  ff..;.  form,  45,  51  ; 
without  ending,  129  ;  modify- 
ing verbs,  45 _f.  ;  modifying 
adjectives,  47  ;  modifying  ad- 
verbs, 48 ;  classification,  49  ff. ; 
numeral,  200  ff.  ;  relative  or 
conjunctive,  274, 295  ;  interrog- 
ative, 277,  307 ;  comparison, 
184  ff.  ;  and  prepositions,  130. 
Synopsis,  398. 

After,  274,  297. 

Agency,  316  ff. 

All,  39,  194. 

Although.     See  Though. 

Analysis,  22,  34,  75,  86,  89,  94, 
131  ff. ;  formula  of,  134  ;  modi- 
fiers, 53,  234.  See  Clauses, 
Modifiers.  See  Composition, 
319  ff.,  and  Synopsis,  404. 

Anglo-Saxon,  384  f. 

Another,  194. 

Antecedent  of  pronoun,  agree- 
ment, 267  ff.,  310;  what,  272; 
compound  relatives,  273  ff. ; 
omitted,  272  f. 


409 


410 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Antithesis,  363. 

Antonyms,  324  ff. 

Any,  anything,  etc.,  194. 

Apodosis,  301. 

Apostrophe,  80  ff.,  163  ff. 

Appear,  with  predicate  adjective, 
97. 

Appositive  adjective,  89. 

Appositives,  87  ff.,  264  ;  analysis, 
89  ;  case  of,  168  f. ;  phrase,  89  ; 
clause,  123,  300,  305,  397. 

Archaic  language.    See  Old  forms. 

Articles,  41  ff. 

As,  conjunction,  116,  298;  rela- 
tive pronoun,  267  ff.,  296;  ad- 
verb, 274,  296,  302. 

Attribute.  See  Predicate  adjec- 
tive, Predicate  noun. 

Attributive  adjectives,  37. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  14,  240  ff . ,  245  ff . , 
249  i,  251  ff.,  255  ff.,  283  ff., 
288,  312  ff.,  393.  See  Modal 
auxiliaries.     Synopsis,  406. 

Be,  23  f.,  97  ff.,  245,  251,  287  f., 
310,  394  f. 

Become,  with  predicate  nomina- 
tive or  adjective,  97  ff. 

Before,  with  subjunctive,  291. 

Both,  194. 

Both  .  .  .  and,  60,  110,  114. 

Business  forms,  380  ff.  ;  letters, 
367  ff.,  374,  378;  transactions, 
377  f. 

Can,  284,  312  f.,  393. 

Capital  letters,  5,  39. 

Cardinal  numerals,  200  ff. 

Case.  See  Nominative,  Genitive, 
Objective,  Vocative.  Synopsis, 
401. 


Case  relations.  See  Nouns,  402  ; 
and  Verbs,  404. 

Cause,  clauses  of,  298. 

Classification.    See  Synopsis,  397. 

Clauses,  113  ff.  ;  adjective,  120  ff., 
133  f.,  295 ff. ;  adverbial,  116 ff., 
133  f.,  296  ff.  ;  relative,  120  ff.  ; 
as  nouns,  122  ff.,  296  ff. ;  coordi- 
nate, 114;  subordinate,  115  ff., 
294  ff.;  classified,  296;  depend- 
ence of,  296  ff.  ;  place  and 
time,  297  ;  causal  and  conces- 
sive, 298 ;  purpose  and  result, 
299  ff. ;  conditional,  300 ;  com- 
parative, 302  ;  manner,  302 ; 
degree,  302  ;  direct  and  indirect 
discourse,  304;  indirect  ques- 
tions, 306  ff. ;  infinitive  clauses, 
309  ff.     Synopsis,  399. 

Cognate  object,  262. 

Collective  nouns,8;  verbs  with,  216. 

Colloquial  English,  xxii. 

Common  nouns,  5 ;  personifica- 
tion, 141  f. 

Comparative  and  superlative,  use 
of,  187  ff.     See  Comparison. 

Comparative  clauses.  302. 

Comparison:  of  adjectives,  174  ff. ; 
of  adverbs,  184  ff. ;  in  compo- 
sition, 344. 

Complementary  elements,  131  ff. 

Complementary  object,  263. 

Complements.  See  Predicate  ad- 
jective, Predicate  noun,  Direct 
object,  Predicate  objective. 

Complete  tenses,  249  f. 

Complex  sentences,  115  ff.,  132  ff. ; 
analysis,  134 ;  sequence  of 
tenses,  311  ff. 


INDEX. 


411 


Composition,  319  ff. ;  oral,  345  f. ; 
classified  Synopsis,  399.  See 
Antonyms,  Conclusion,  Con- 
versation, Description,  Empha- 
sis, Equivalent  constructions, 
Introduction,  Letter  writing, 
Narration,  Paragraphs,  Sen- 
tences, Synonyms,  Transition, 
Unity,  Variety,  Words. 

Compound     complex    sentences, 
133  f. 
y   Compound  nouns,  148  J. 

Concession,  290,  298. 

Conclusion,  357  f. 

Condensed  expression,  332  f. 

Conditional  sentences,  290,  300  ff. 

Conjugation,  136.    See  Inflection. 

Conjunctions,  use,  59  ff.  ;  distin- 
guished from  prepositions,  60; 
coordinate,  108,  110,  114;  sub- 
ordinate, 110,  289  ff.,  295  ff. 
Synopsis,  401. 

Conjunctive  adverbs.  See  Rela- 
tive adverbs. 

Conjunctive  pronouns.  See  Rela- 
tive pronouns. 

Connectives,  359.  See  Conjunc- 
tions, Relatives,  Relative  ad- 
verbs. 

Construction,  xv,  1.  See  Analy- 
sis. 

Conversation,  written,  336. 

Coordinate  clauses,  144- :  conjunc- 
tions, 108.  110,  114. 

Copula  (to  be),  23  1     See  Be. 

Correlative  conjunctions,  108. 

Could,  283  ff.,  312  f.,  393. 

Dative  case,  171. 

Declarative  sentences,  18. 


Declension,  136.     See  Inflection. 

Defective  verbs,  393. 

Definite  article,  41  ff. 

Degree,  clauses  of,  302.  See 
Comparison. 

Demonstratives,  190  ff. ;  inflection 
of,  192. 

Dependent  clauses.  See  Subor- 
dinate clauses. 

Description,  342,  349,  356,  357. 

Descriptive  adjectives,  39 ;  rela- 
tives, 271. 

Did,  14  ;  in  questions,  27.    See  Do. 

Direct  discourse,  304  ;  quotations, 
304  ;  object,  see  Objective. 

Do,  14 ;  in  questions,  27  ;  in  im- 
peratives, 256 ;  in  emphatic 
verb-phrases,  253  f. 

Double  construction,  272  ff. 

Each,  each  other,  39,  194  f. 

Either,  194. 

Either  .  .  .  or,  60,  108,  110,  114. 

Elements  of  sentence,  131  ff. 

Emphasis,  360 ;  methods,  361  f. 

Emphatic  verb-phrases,  253. 

English  language,  xiii  ff.,  383  ff. 

Equivalent  constructions,  328  ff. 
Synopsis,  399. 

Errors  in  use,  see  each  chapter. 

Every,  39,  194. 

Exclamation  point,  63. 

Exclamations,  nominative  in,  161. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  31,  276  f. 

Exercises.  See  after  each  chapter. 

Exhortations,  289. 

Expletive  it,  278.„_ 

Feel,  with  predicate  adjective,  98. 

Few,  39,  194. 

For,  60,  114. 


412 


THE   MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Foreign  plurals,  147. 

Future  perfect  tense,  249  f. 

Future  tense,  240  ff. 

Gender  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
138  ff.  ;  special  rules,  141  ff.  ; 
of  relatives,  270;  personifica- 
tion, 141  f.  Synopsis,  403. 
TGenitive,  80  ff.,  163  ff.  ;  analysis, 
86;  of-phrase,  85  f.,  164,  166; 
appositives,  168  f. 

Gerund,  239. 

Grammar,  principles  of,  xiii  ff.  -T 
definition,  xv. 

Had  rather,  292. 

Had  to,  284. 

Have,  had,  conjugation,  209,  315; 
auxiliary,  14,  249  f.,  290  f. 

History,  383  ff.  See  each  part  of 
speech. 

How,  116,  274,  277,  296,  307. 

Hyphen,  149. 

Idioms,  xvii. 

If,  287,  290  f.,  300  f.,  302,  307. 

Imperative  mood,  255  ff. 

Imperative  sentences,  29 ;  subject 
of,  256. 

Indefinite  article,  41  ff. ;  pronouns 
and  adjectives,  194  ff. ;  nouns, 
194. 

Indicative  mood,  137,  245  f. 

Indirect  discourse,  304 ;  quota- 
tions, 304  ;  questions,  306  f . ; 
object,  170  ff. ;  infinitive  phrase, 
310. 

Infinitive,  222  ff.  ;  as  noun,  278  ; 
as  object  of  preposition,  278  ; 
as  modifier,  280  ;  perfect,  249  ; 
complementary,  281  ;  of  pur- 
pose, 281 ;  equivalents  of,  328  f. , 


331  ;  modifiers  of,  234 ;  object 
of,  234  ;  sign  of  (to),  223  ff.  ; 
without  to,  240,  253,  283,  310 ; 
subject  of,  309 ;  infinitive 
clauses,  309  ;  in  verb-phrases, 
see  Future,  Compound  tenses, 
Emphatic,  Potential.  Synop- 
sis, 406. 

Inflection,  135  ff.,  267  ff.,  287  f . ; 
nature  of,  xiv  f.  ;  defined,  xv  ; 
loss  of,  xxi ;  summary  of, 
136  f.  ;  of  nouns  and  p  onouns, 
138  ff.,  196  ff.;  of  eljectives, 
174  ff.;  of  adverbs,  .84  ff. ;  of 
demonstrative  wortiV,  192  ff.  ; 
of  verbs,  204  ff.,  287  f.  ;  of  rel- 
atives, 267  ff.  ;  of  interroga- 
tives,  276.     See  Syr  >psis,  397. 

In  order  that,  299. 

Instrument  or  means,  ;  16  ff. 

Intensive  pronouns,  196  f. 

Interjections,  63  f. 

Interrogative  pronouns  and  adjec- 
tives, 276;  adverbs,  277,  307; 
sentences,  25  ff. 

Intransitive  verbs,  90  ff. 

Introduction,  355  ff. 

Invitations,  375  ff. 

Irregular  verbs,  206  ff.,  386  ff. 

It,  as  expletive,  ^78 ;  as  cognate 
object,  262. 

Language,  thf  expression  of 
thought,  xiv  ff.  ;  defined,  1  ; 
rules  of,  xvi  f. ;  changes  in, 
xviii  ff.  ;  styie,  xvii,  xxii ;  his- 
tory, xviii,  3£3  ff. 

Latin,  xvi,  xvii . 

Lest,  with  subjunctive,  291. 

Let  us,  289. 


INDEX. 


413 


Letter  writing,  3_£5-  ff.  ;  form, 
368  f.  ;  TmqinPB^  "ftQj  f  ,  374  ; 
social,  375  ff. ;  telegrams,  379  f. 

Literature.  See  Composition, 
399. 

Logic,  xvi ;  183,  N.  2. 

Look,  with  predicate  adjective,  98. 

Manner,  clauses  of,  302. 

Many,  39,  194. 

May,  auxiliary,  283  f.,  312,  393. 

Means  or  instrument,  316  ff. 

Middle  English,  385. 

Might,  auxiliary,  283  f.,  312,  393. 

Modal  auxiliaries,  use  and  mean- 
ing, 283  ff. ;  sequence,  312  f. 

Mode.     See  Mood. 

Modifiers,  53,  131  ff.,  294  ff.  ;  ad- 
jective, 53,  68  ff.,  75  f.,  86,  89, 
120  f.,  281,  296  ff. ;  adverbial, 
45  ff.,  531,  71  ft'.,  75,  115  ff., 
234,  280  ff.,  296  ff.  Synopsis, 
397. 

Mood,  137.  See  Indicative,  Im- 
perative, Subjunctive,  Poten- 
tial.    Synopsis,  405. 

More,  most,  comparison  with, 
178  f.,  183  f. 

-most,  181. 

Must,  auxiliary,  283  ff.,  313  f., 
393. 

Narration,  342  f.  ;  353  ff. 

Negative  commands,  257  ;  adverb, 
50. 

Neither,  194. 

Neither.  .  .  nor,  60,  108,  110,  114. 

Next,  181. 

No,  39. 

Nomenclature,  v.     Preface. 

Nominative  case,  21,  157  ;  predi- 


cate, 99  ff.,  159  f. ;  in  excla- 
mations, 161  ;  absolute,  259  ; 
vocative,  33. 

None,  194. 

Norman  French,  384. 

Noun  clauses,  122  ff.,  299  f. 
Synopsis,  402. 

Nouns,  4  ff. ;  common  and  proper, 
4  ff. ;  abstract  and  collective, 
7  ff. ;  compound,  148  f .  ;  verbal, 
in  -ing,  237  ff. ;  as  adjectives, 
127 ;  in  adverbial  phrases,  73  ; 
inflection,  136  ff.   Synopsis,  401. 

Number  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
77  ff.,  145  ff.  ;  of  verbs,  213  ff. 

Numerals,  200  ff. 

Object,  of  preposition,  56,  60  ;  of 
verb,  direct,  90  ff.,  94,  101, 157, 
170  ff. ;  clause,  123,  305  ff.;  in- 
direct, 170  ff. ;  of  infinitive  or 
participle,  234  ;  of  -ing  noun, 
238  ;  cognate,  262  ;  predicate 
objective,  263  ff.  ;  infinitive  as, 
281  ;  analysis,  94. 

Objective  attribute,  263. 

Objective  case.     See  Object. 

Objective  clause.     See  Object. 

Obsolete  words,  etc.,  xiii  f. 

0/-phrase,  85  1,  164,  166. 

Old  English,  384. 

Old  forms  and  constructions,  xix, 
27,  129,  149,  153,  154,  163,  166, 
171,  179,  181,  187,  188,  199, 
202,  211,  219  1,  232  1,  252, 
253.  273,  287  ff.,  389,  391,  393. 

One  another,  104  f. 

One,  one's,  one's  self,  195,  196. 

Oral  composition,  345  f. 

Ordinal  numerals,  200  ff, 


414 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


Or,  either  . .  .  or,  60, 108, 110, 114. 

Other,  another,  194. 

Ought,  284  f.,  393. 

Own,  199. 

Paragraph,  334  ff .  Synopsis,  399  f. 

Parsing.  See  Exercises  at  end  of 
chapters,  Summary,  136  ff., 
and  direction,  203,  x. 

Participles,  226  ff.,  393  ff. ;  pres- 
ent, 229,  237,  251  f.  ;  past, 
230  ff.,  245,  249  i,  255;  per- 
fect, 249  ;  object  and  modifiers 
of,  234  ;  equivalents,  332  ff. 
Synopsis,  407. 

Parts  of  speech  defined,  2  f. ; 
same  word  as  different,  125  ff. 

Passive  voice,  95  f . ,  248  ;  how- 
formed,  96,  245  ff. ;  in  com- 
plete tenses,  250  ;  in  progres- 
sive form,  252  ;  in  imperative, 
255 ;  in  subjunctive,  288  ;  sub- 
ject of,  248. 

Past  participle,  230  ff .,  245,  249  f . , 
255. 

Past  perfect.     See  pluperfect. 

Perfect  infinitive,  249  ;  participle, 
249. 

Perfect  tense,  249  f. 

Person,  152  ff.  ;  of  verbs,  217  ff. 

Personal  endings,  219>f. 

Personal  pronouns,  11;  inflection, 
152  ff.  ;  gender,  136,  138  ff., 
154;  in  predicate,  105,  159  1, 
310  ;  se^-pronouns,  196  ff. 

Personification,  141  f. 

Phrases,  65  ff. ;  as  nouns,  65 ; 
prepositional,  68  ff.  ;  adjective, 
68  ff.  ;  adverbial]  71  ff.  ;  as 
modifiers,  75 ;  classification 


(place  in  which,  place  from 
which,  limit  of  motion,  agency, 
instrument  or  means,  accom- 
paniment), 316  ff.  See  Synop- 
sis, 402. 
See  Verb-phrases. 

Place  and  time,  adverbs  of,  49  ff . , 
274,  277,  297  ;  clauses  of,  297  ; 
phrases  (in  which,  from  which, 
limit  of  motion),  316  ff. 

Pluperfect  tense,  249  f. 

Plural  of  substantives,  77  ff.  ;  ir- 
regular, 146  ff.  ;  of  compounds, 
148  ;  of  titles,  150  ;  genitive, 
81  ff.,  163  ff.  ;  of  verbs,  213  ff. 
See  Synopsis,  401. 

Poetical  uses.     See  Old  forms. 

Positive  degree,  174. 

Possessive  case.     See  Genitive. 

Possessive  pronouns,  84. 

Potential  verb-phrases,  283  ff. 

Predicate,  17  ff.,  131  ;  simple  and 
complete,  20  ff.  ;  compound, 
110  ff.  See  Modifiers.  Synop- 
sis, 404. 

Predicate  adjective,  97;  analysis, 
106. 

Predicate  nominative,  99  ff., 
159  L,  266  ;  analysis,  106  ; 
clause,  123,  305. 

Prepositional  phrases,  68  ff. 

Prepositions,  55  ff.,  60  ;  object  of, 
56  ;  see  Phrases.  Synopsis,  402. 

I 'resent  participle,  229,237,  251  f. 

Present  perfect.     See  Perfect. 

Present  tense,  204  f.,  246;  per- 
sonal endings,  219  ff.  ;  partici- 
ple. 229. 

Preterite  present  verbs,  393. 


INDEX. 


415 


Preterite  tense,  204  ff . ,  236  ;  weak 
and  strong,  206  ff.  ;  personal 
endings,  219  f. 

Principal  parts,  236. 

Progressive  verb-phrases,  251  f. 

Pronominal  adjectives.  See  De- 
monstrative, Indefinite,  Rela- 
tive, Interrogative. 

Pronouns,  10  ff.  See  Personal, 
Demonstrative,  Relative,  Inter- 
rogative, Indefinite.  Synopsis, 
403. 

Pronunciation,  xx.  See  Geni- 
tives, 164  ff. 

Proper  nouns,  5,  141  f.  ;  adjec- 
tives, 39  ff. 

Prose  forms.  See  Composition, 
319  ff. 

Protasis,  301. 

Punctuation.  See  special  rules 
throughout  the  book. 

Purpose,  291,  299,  300. 

Questions.  See  Interrogative 
sentences,  Indirect  questions. 
Synopsis,  404. 

Quotation  marks,  804.  ^ 

Quotations,  direct,  indirect,  304. 

Reciprocal  prono'uns.  See  Each 
other. 

Reflexive  pronouns,  196  f. 

Relative  adjectives,  274  ;  adverbs. 
274  ;  pronouns,  117  ff.,  267  ff.  ; 
relative  omitted,  269;  antece- 
dent implied,  272  f. ;  compound 
relatives,  273  ff. 

Reproduction.  352  ff. 

Result,  299. 

Root  infinitive.  See  Infinitive, 
without  to. 


Seem,  with  predicate  nominative 
or  adjective,  97  ff. 

»S'eZ/-pronouns,  196  ff. 

Sentences,  16  ff.  ;  structure, 
131  ff. ;  declarative,  18  ;  inde- 
pendent, 113;  negative,  256; 
interrogative,  25  ff.  ;  impera- 
tive, 29,  255  ff.  ;  exclamatory, 
31  f.,  276  ff.;  conditional,  300  f. 
In  Composition,  325  ff. ;  effect- 
iveness of  different  forms,  350. 
See  Analysis,  Compound,  Com- 
plex, Clauses.  Synopsis,  400 
and  404. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  311  ff.  ;  of 
modal  auxiliaries,  312  f. ;  407. 

Several,  194. 

Shall.     See  Will. 

S/jouZtf,auxiliary,283ff.,291,312f. 

Since,  adverb,  274,  297  f.  ;  con- 
junction, 298. 

Singular.      See  Number. 

Slang,  xx. 

Smell,  with  predicate  adjective, 
98. 

Smoothness,  348  f. 

So  .   .   .  that,  299. 

Solemn  style.     See  Old  forms. 

Some,  ::<>,  194. 

Sound,  with  predicate  adjective, 
98. 

Spelling,  xx. 

Stanza,  337. 

Strong  verbs,  205  ff.,  380;  par- 
ticiples, 232  ff. 

Structure.     See  Sentences. 

Style  and  grammar,  xvii.  See 
Synopsis',  400. 

Subject,  17  ff.,  131  ff  ;  simple  and 


416 


THE  MOTHER    TONGUE. 


complete,  20  ff.  ;  compound, 
107  ff. ;  clause  as,  122  f.,  305  ff. ; 
infinitive  as,  223  f. ;  of  infini- 
tive, 310  ;  agreement  with  verb, 
213  ff.  See  Analysis,  Modifiers. 
Synopsis,  404,  407. 

Subjunctive  mood,  287  ff.  ;  uses 
of,  289  ff. 

Su bo  rdi  n ate  clauses,  115  ff., 
267  ff.,  289  ff.,  294  ff. ;  conjunc- 
tions, 116,  289  ff.,  295  ff.,  307. 
Synopsis,  399. 

Substantive  clauses.  See  Noun 
clauses. 

Substantives,  11.  See  Nouns, 
Pronouns. 

Such,  194. 

Superlative.     See  Comparison. 

Synonyms,  322  ff. 

Syntax,  xv  ;  328.  See  each  part 
of  speech.     Synopsis,  397. 

Taste,  with  predicate  adjective,  98. 

Technique,  320. 

Tense,  204  ff.  See  Present,  Pret- 
erite, Future,  Complete  tenses, 
Sequence  of  tenses.  Synopsis, 
405. 

Than,  302  ;  case  after,  302. 

That,  conjunction,  122  1,  299  f., 
304  f.  ;  with  subjunctive,  291 ; 
demonstrative,  39,  190  ff.  ;  rel- 
ative, 117  ff.,  267  ff. 

The,  41  ff. 

This,  39,  190  ff. 

Though,  conjunction,  290. 

Thought,  sequence  of,  338,  341  ; 
in  sentence,  294. 

Till,  274,  297  ;  with  subjunctive, 
291. 


Time,  clauses  of,  297. 

Titles,  plural,  150. 

Transition,  358  ;  means  of,  359. 

Transitive  verbs,  90  ff. 

Unity,  325  1,  335  ff. 

Unless,  290,  301. 

Until,  274,  291,  297. 

Usage  and  grammar,  xvi.  See 
Synopsis,  400. 

Variety,  328,  347  ff. 

Verbal  nouns  in  -ing,  237  ff. 

Verb-phrases,  14  ;  to  supply  in- 
flection, 137.  See  Future, 
Complete  tenses,  Passive,  Pro- 
gressive, Emphatic,  Potential. 
Synopsis,  406. 

Verbs,  13  ff.  ;  copula,  23  f.  ;  tran- 
sitive and  intransitive,  90  ff.  ; 
inflection,  137,  204  ff.  ;  strong 
and  weak,  205  ff.  j  irregular, 
206  ff.,  386  ff.  ;  defective,  393  ; 
agreement  "with  subject,  213  ff. 
See  Mood,  Tense,  Voice,  Verb- 
phrases,  Principal  parts.  Syn- 
opsis, 404.  »»     ' 

Vocabulary,  320. 

Vocative,  33  f.,  161. 

Voice,  95  f.,  245,  248.  See 
Passive.     Synopsis,  405. 

Weak  verbs,  205  ff.,  389  ff.  ;  parti- 
ciples, 230  ff.  ;  list,  389  ff. 

What,  267  ff.,  272,  274  ff.,  307. 

Whatever,  273  ff. 

Wlien,  274,  297. 

Whence,  274,  297. 

Where,  wherever,  274,  297,  307. 

Whether  .  .  .  or,  307. 

Which.  See  Relative,  Interroga- 
tive. 


INDEX.  417 

While,  274,  297.  Wishes,  289,  313. 

Whither,  274,  297.  Words,  signs  of  thought,  xiii  ff. ; 

Who,  whose,    whom.     See    Rela-  use  of,  320  ff.     See  Synopsis, 

tive,  Interrogative.  400. 

Whoever,  273  ff.  Would  and  should,  283,  285,  289, 

Why,  307.  291,  292,  312  f.,  393. 

Will  and  shall,  auxiliaries,  240  ff . ,  Written    and    spoken    language, 

249,  285,  288,  313,  393.   Synop-  xiii  ff. 

sis,  406. 


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